MK2 inhibitor reduces alkali burn-induced inflammation in rat cornea

Aloin alleviates corneal injury in alkali burn via inhibiting neutrophil extracellular traps and promoting Nrf2

OBJECTIVE

Ocular chemical burns are a leading cause of blindness. The cornea is injured by alkali-induced oxidative disturbances and an inflammatory response. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective effects of aloin, an antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory compound, on corneal alkali burn.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice eyes were injured by NaOH and subsequently treated with aloin eye drop and intraperitoneal injection. Pathological characteristics of the eyes were examined, and corneal samples were collected for further analysis.

RESULTS

Aloin diminished neutrophil infiltration and the production of proinflammatory cytokines. Aloin also attenuated apoptosis in human corneal epithelial cells (HCEs) by reducing oxidative stress through the activation of the Nrf2 pathway. Additionally, aloin suppressed the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and inhibited their deposition on the cornea. Moreover, aloin mitigated alkali-induced apoptosis in HCEs caused by NETs.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that aloin has potential as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound for treating corneal alkali burn by inhibiting NETs formation and promoting Nrf2.

Photoactivated Chromophore for Keratitis-Corneal Cross-linking (PACK-CXL)-A Scoping Review Based on Preclinical Studies

Purpose

Photoactivated chromophore for keratitis-corneal cross-linking (PACK-CXL) stabilizes the corneal stroma and eliminates microorganisms. Numerous PACK-CXL protocols, using different energy sources and chromophores, have been applied in preclinical studies, including live animal studies, with various experimental designs and endpoints. So far, a systematic mapping of the applied protocols and consistency across studies seems lacking but is essential to guide future research.

Methods

The scoping review protocol was in line with the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. Electronic databases were searched (Embase, MEDLINE, Scopus, Web of Science) to identify eligible records, followed by a two-step selection process (title and abstract screening, full text screening) for record inclusion. We extracted information on (1) different PACK-CXL protocol characteristics; (2) infectious pathogens tested; (3) study designs and experimental settings; and (4) endpoints used to determine antimicrobial and tissue stabilizing effects. The information was charted in frequency maps.

Results

The searches yielded 3654 unique records, 233 of which met the inclusion criteria. With 103 heterogeneous endpoints, the researchers investigated a wide range of PACK-CXL protocols. The tested microorganisms reflected pathogens commonly associated with infectious keratitis. Bacterial solutions and infectious keratitis rabbit models were the most widely used models to study the antimicrobial effects of PACK-CXL.

Conclusions

If preclinical PACK-CXL studies are to guide future translational research, further cross-disciplinary efforts are needed to establish, promote, and facilitate acceptance of common endpoints relevant to PACK-CXL.

Translational Relevance

Systematic mapping of PACK-CXL protocols in preclinical studies guides future translational research.

MicroRNA-146a negatively regulates inflammation via the IRAK1/TRAF6/NF-κB signaling pathway in dry eye

Inflammation is a key factor in the pathogenesis of dry eye disease (DED). We aimed to investigate the role of microRNA-146a (miR-146a) in regulating corneal inflammation in a mouse model of benzalkonium chloride (BAC)-induced dry eye and the TNF-α-induced NF-κB signaling pathway in human corneal epithelial cells (HCECs). A mouse model of dry eye was established by administering with BAC to BALB/c mice, and the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (IRAK1) and TNF receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) in the corneas of dry eye model mice was significantly increased; this was accompanied by the upregulation of miR-146a and activation of the NF-κB pathway. In vitro, TNF-α induced miR-146a expression in HCECs, while the NF-κB inhibitor SC-514 reduced the expression of miR-146a. Overexpression of miR-146a decreased the expression of IRAK1 and TRAF6, which have been identified as targets of miR-146a. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-146a suppressed NF-κB p65 translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. Moreover, overexpression of miR-146a attenuated the TNF-α-induced expression of IL-6, IL-8, COX2 and intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), while inhibition of miR-146a exerted the opposite effect. Our results suggest that miR-146a mediates the inflammatory response in DED. MiR-146a negatively regulates inflammation in HCECs through the IRAK1/TRAF6/NF-κB pathway, and this may serve as a potential therapeutic approach for the treatment of DED.

Pathogenesis of Alkali Injury-Induced Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency: A Literature Survey of Animal Models

Limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) is a debilitating ocular surface disease that eventuates from a depleted or dysfunctional limbal epithelial stem cell (LESC) pool, resulting in corneal epithelial failure and blindness. The leading cause of LSCD is a chemical burn, with alkali substances being the most common inciting agents. Characteristic features of alkali-induced LSCD include corneal conjunctivalization, inflammation, neovascularization and fibrosis. Over the past decades, animal models of corneal alkali burn and alkali-induced LSCD have been instrumental in improving our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms responsible for disease development. Through these paradigms, important insights have been gained with regards to signaling pathways that drive inflammation, neovascularization and fibrosis, including NF-κB, ERK, p38 MAPK, JNK, STAT3, PI3K/AKT, mTOR and WNT/β-catenin cascades. Nonetheless, the molecular and cellular events that underpin re-epithelialization and those that govern long-term epithelial behavior are poorly understood. This review provides an overview of the current mechanistic insights into the pathophysiology of alkali-induced LSCD. Moreover, we highlight limitations regarding existing animal models and knowledge gaps which, if addressed, would facilitate development of more efficacious therapeutic strategies for patients with alkali-induced LSCD.

A Rational Design of Metal-Organic Framework Nanozyme with High-Performance Copper Active Centers for Alleviating Chemical Corneal Burns

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted significant research interest in biomimetic catalysis. However, the modulation of the activity of MOFs by precisely tuning the coordination of metal nodes is still a significant challenge. Inspired by metalloenzymes with well-defined coordination structures, a series of MOFs containing halogen-coordinated copper nodes (Cu-X MOFs, X = Cl, Br, I) are employed to elucidate their structure-activity relationship. Intriguingly, experimental and theoretical results strongly support that precisely tuning the coordination of halogen atoms directly regulates the enzyme-like activities of Cu-X MOFs by influencing the spatial configuration and electronic structure of the Cu active center. The optimal Cu-Cl MOF exhibits excellent superoxide dismutase-like activity with a specific activity one order of magnitude higher than the reported Cu-based nanozymes. More importantly, by performing enzyme-mimicking catalysis, the Cu-Cl MOF nanozyme can significantly scavenge reactive oxygen species and alleviate oxidative stress, thus effectively relieving ocular chemical burns. Mechanistically, the antioxidant and antiapoptotic properties of Cu-Cl MOF are achieved by regulating the NRF2 and JNK or P38 MAPK pathways. Our work provides a novel way to refine MOF nanozymes by directly engineering the coordination microenvironment and, more significantly, demonstrating their potential therapeutic effect in ophthalmic disease.

The association between altered intestinal microbiome, impaired systemic and ocular surface immunity, and impaired wound healing response after corneal alkaline-chemical injury in diabetic mice

Purpose

We aim to investigate the effect of sustained hyperglycemia on corneal epithelial wound healing, ocular surface and systemic immune response, and microbiome indices in diabetic mice compared to controls after alkaline chemical injury of the eye.

Methods

Corneal alkaline injury was induced in the right eye of Ins2^Akita (Akita) mice and wild-type mice. The groups were observed at baseline and subsequently days 0, 3, and 7 after injury. Corneal re-epithelialization was observed under slit lamp with fluorescein staining using a cobalt blue light filter. Enucleated cornea specimens were compared at baseline and after injury for changes in cornea thickness under hematoxylin and eosin staining. Tear cytokine and growth factor levels were measured using protein microarray assay and compared between groups and time points. Flow cytometry was conducted on peripheral blood and ocular surface samples to determine CD3+CD4+ cell count. Fecal samples were collected, and gut microbiota composition and diversity pattern were measured using shotgun sequencing.

Results

Akita mice had significantly delayed corneal wound healing compared to controls. This was associated with a reduction in tear levels of vascular endothelial growth factor A, angiopoietin 2, and insulin growth factor 1 on days 0, 3, and 7 after injury. Furthermore, there was a distinct lack of upregulation of peripheral blood and ocular surface CD3+CD4+ cell counts in response to injury in Akita mice compared to controls. This was associated with a reduction in intestinal microbiome diversity indices in Akita mice compared to controls after injury. Specifically, there was a lower abundance of Firmicutes bacterium M10-2 in Akita mice compared to controls after injury.

Conclusion

In diabetic mice, impaired cornea wound healing was associated with an inability to mount systemic and local immune response to ocular chemical injury. Baseline and post-injury differences in intestinal microbial diversity and abundance patterns between diabetic mice and controls may potentially play a role in this altered response.

Network Pharmacology Analysis and Experimental Validation of Kaempferol in the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke by Inhibiting Apoptosis and Regulating Neuroinflammation Involving Neutrophils

Kaempferol, a natural plant flavonoid compound, has a neuroprotective effect on ischemic stroke, while the specific mechanism remains unclear. In the current study, we applied the comprehensive strategy that combines network pharmacology and experimental evaluation to explore the potential mechanism of kaempferol in the treatment of cerebral ischemia. First, network pharmacology analysis identified the biological process of kaempferol, suggesting that kaempferol may partly help in treating ischemic stroke by regulating apoptosis and inflammatory response. Then, we evaluated the efficacy of kaempferol in the acute stage of ischemic stroke and elucidated its effects and possible mechanisms on cell apoptosis and neuroinflammation involved by neutrophils. The results showed that kaempferol could significantly reduce the modified neurological severity score (mNSS), and reduce the volume of cerebral infarction and the degree of cerebral edema. In terms of anti-apoptosis, kaempferol could significantly reduce the number of TUNEL-positive cells, inhibit the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins and promote the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. Kaempferol may play an anti-apoptotic role by up-regulating the expression level of the BDNF-TrkB-PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In addition, we found that kaempferol inhibited neuron loss and the activation of glial cells, as well as the expression level of the inflammatory protein COX-2 and the classic pro-inflammatory signaling pathway TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB in the ischemic brain, reduced MPO activity and neutrophil counts in peripheral blood, and down-regulated neutrophil aggregation and infiltration in the ischemic brain. Western blot revealed that kaempferol down-regulated the activation of the JAK1/STAT3 signaling pathway in neutrophils and ischemic brains. Our study showed that kaempferol inhibited the activation and number of neutrophils in the rat peripheral blood and brain, which may be related to the down-regulation of the JAK1/STAT3 pathway.

Hypoxia-induced mesenchymal stem cells inhibit corneal fibroblast proliferation by regulating the WWP2/Notch1 axis

Aim: This study aimed to explore the role of hypoxic mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in corneal alkali burns and the underlying mechanism. Materials & methods: Rat corneal fibroblasts were incubated with IL-6, followed by treatment with hypoxic MSC supernatant. A rat corneal alkali burn model was implemented and processed with hypoxic MSCs. The associated factors were detected by corresponding methods. Results: Hypoxic MSCs reduced the Notch1 level and the proliferation of rat corneal fibroblasts. Hypoxic MSCs or WWP2 overexpression in MSCs enhanced ubiquitination of Notch1. WWP2 interacted with Notch1, and WWP2 silencing reversed the effects of the hypoxic MSCs. Hypoxic MSC treatment in vivo decreased the corneal neovascularization scores and opacity scores. Conclusion: Hypoxic MSCs inhibited inflammation and alleviated corneal injury in alkali burns via the WWP2/Notch1 axis.

Advances in Immunomodulation and Immune Engineering Approaches to Improve Healing of Extremity Wounds

Delayed healing of traumatic wounds often stems from a dysregulated immune response initiated or exacerbated by existing comorbidities, multiple tissue injury or wound contamination. Over decades, approaches towards alleviating wound inflammation have been centered on interventions capable of a collective dampening of various inflammatory factors and/or cells. However, a progressive understanding of immune physiology has rendered deeper knowledge on the dynamic interplay of secreted factors and effector cells following an acute injury. There is a wide body of literature, both in vitro and in vivo, abstracted on the immunomodulatory approaches to control inflammation. Recently, targeted modulation of the immune response via biotechnological approaches and biomaterials has gained attention as a means to restore the pro-healing phenotype and promote tissue regeneration. In order to fully realize the potential of these approaches in traumatic wounds, a critical and nuanced understanding of the relationships between immune dysregulation and healing outcomes is needed. This review provides an insight on paradigm shift towards interventional approaches to control exacerbated immune response following a traumatic injury from an agonistic to a targeted path. We address such a need by (1) providing a targeted discussion of the wound healing processes to assist in the identification of novel therapeutic targets and (2) highlighting emerging technologies and interventions that utilize an immunoengineering-based approach. In addition, we have underscored the importance of immune engineering as an emerging tool to provide precision medicine as an option to modulate acute immune response following a traumatic injury. Finally, an overview is provided on how an intervention can follow through a successful clinical application and regulatory pathway following laboratory and animal model evaluation.

α-MSH ameliorates corneal surface dysfunction in scopolamine-induced dry eye rats and human corneal epithelial cells via enhancing EGFR expression

Dry eye (DE) is a chronic, multifactorial ocular surface disease associated with visual disturbance, tear film instability, hyperosmolarity, ocular surface inflammation and damage. Effective intervention is necessary to control this disease. In this study we topically applied α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) on the ocular surface of scopolamine-induced DE rats and found that it promoted tear secretion, reduced tear breakup time and fluorescein sodium staining and increased the number of conjunctival goblet cells. To investigate the mechanism, protein array was conducted, which showed that α-MSH exerted its effects via epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) in the JAK-STAT signaling pathway. Furthermore, in vitro experiments showed that α-MSH protected human corneal epithelial cells (hCECs) by maintaining their migration ability and viability and decreasing apoptosis. However, blockade of EGFR abolished these protective effects. Moreover, α-MSH decreased the level of autophagy in benzalkonium chloride (BAC)-stressed hCECs via EGFR. These results demonstrated that α-MSH ameliorated lesions and restored ocular surface functions by upregulating EGFR expression.

Epigenetic Landscape Analysis of the Long Non-Coding RNA and Messenger RNA in a Mouse Model of Corneal Alkali Burns

Purpose

Corneal alkali burns (CABs) are a common clinical ocular disease, presenting a poor prognosis. Although some long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) reportedly play a key role in epigenetic regulation associated with CABs, studies regarding the lncRNA signature in CABs remain rare and elusive.

Methods

A CAB model was established in C57BL/6J mice and profiling of lncRNA expressions was performed by RNA-Seq. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were conducted to predicate the related pathological pathways and candidate genes. RT-qPCR was used to verify the expression pattern of lncRNAs and related mRNAs, both in vitro and in vivo. Data were statistically analyzed by GraphPad Prism version 6.0.

Results

In all, 4436 aberrantly expressed lncRNAs were identified in CAB mice when compared with control mice. In the top 13 aberrantly expressed lncRNAs, Bc037156 and 4930511E03Rik were confirmed as the most significantly altered lncRNAs. Pathway analysis revealed that mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway was most enriched. Following 4930511E03Rik siRNA treated, Srgn, IL-1β and Cxcr2 were significant upregulated in corneal epithelial cells, corneal keratocytes, and bone marrow dendritic cells, with NaOH treatment. Moreover, after Bc037156 siRNA treated, expression levels of IL-1β and Srgn were significantly downregulated in the three cell lines.

Conclusions

Our study suggests that Bc037156 and 4930511E03Rik may be involved in inflammation, immune response, and neovascularization by regulating Srgn, IL-1β, and Cxcr2 expression after CAB. These candidate lncRNAs and mRNAs may be the potential targets for the treatment strategy of the alkali injured cornea.

Comparison of therapeutic effects between topical 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine and corticosteroid in ocular alkali burn model

We compared the therapeutic effects of topical 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) and corticosteroid in a murine ocular alkali burn model. (n = 128) The corneal alkali burn model was established by applying 0.1 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH), followed by treatment with 8-oxo-dG, 0.1% fluorometholone (FML), 1% prednisolone acetate (PDE), or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) twice daily. One week later, the clinical and histological status of the cornea were assessed. Transcript levels of inflammatory cytokines and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase as well as the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in the cornea, were assayed. The 8-oxo-dG and PDE groups showed marked improvements in corneal integrity and clarity when compared with the PBS group (each p < 0.01). The numbers of cells stained for neutrophil elastase and F4/80-positive inflammatory cells were significantly decreased, with levels of interleukin(IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor(TNF)-α, and total ROS/RNS amounts markedly reduced in the 8-oxo-dG, FML, and PDE groups (each p < 0.05). Levels of NADPH oxidase type 2 and 4 were substantially more repressed in the 8-oxo-dG-treated group than in the PDE-treated group (each p < 0.05). Topical 8-oxo-dG showed excellent therapeutic effects that were comparable with those treated with topical PDE in a murine ocular alkali burn model.

Emerging Roles of 5-Lipoxygenase Phosphorylation in Inflammation and Cell Death

5-Lipoxygenase (ALOX5) is an iron-containing and nonheme dioxygenase that catalyzes the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids such as arachidonic acid. ALOX5 is the rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of leukotrienes, a family of proinflammatory lipid mediators derived from arachidonic acid. ALOX5 also make great contributions to mediating lipid peroxidation. In recent years, it has been discovered that ALOX5 plays a central role in cell death including apoptosis, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis, a newly discovered type of cell death. According to the previous studies, ALOX5 can regulate cell death in two ways: one is inflammation and the other is lipid peroxidation. Meanwhile, it has been shown that ALOX5 activity is regulated by several factors including protein phosphorylation, ALOX5-interactng protein, redox state, and metal ions such as iron and calcium. In this review, we aim to summarize the knowledge on the emerging roles of ALOX5 protein phosphorylation in the regulation of cell death and inflammation in order to explore a potential target for human diseases.

Expression levels and significance of miR-184 and miR-126 in burned rats

Expression levels and significance of miR-184 and miR-126 in burned rats were investigated. A total of 30 healthy rats were selected to construct a burn rat model, and another 10 healthy rats as the control group. The modeled rats were divided into groups I, II and III according to burn area, 10 for each group. The reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-q.PCR) was used to detect the expression of miR-184 and miR-126 in the serum of three groups of burned rats, and ELISA was employed to detect the expression levels in peripheral blood and the correlation. There was no difference in the expression levels of miR-184 and miR-126 among the four groups of rats before modeling (P>0.05). Those of miR-184 and miR-126 at each time point were lower than those at the previous one in groups I, II and III (P<0.05). There was no significant change in the expression levels of miR-184 and miR-126 in the control group (P>0.05). At the same time point, those of miR-184 and miR-126 decreased with the increase of burn degree, and the difference was statistically significant between every two groups (P<0.05). The results of Pearson's correlation analysis revealed that the expression level of miR-184 was positively correlated with that of miR-126 (r=0.832, P=0.002). miR-184 and miR-126 were positively correlated with burn degree (r=0.901, P=0.001, r=0.775, P=0.001) and time after burn (r=0.732, P=0.004, r=0.753, P=0.002). The expression levels of miR-184 and miR-126 decrease in burned rats. The changes of their levels may be used as a reference standard for clinical efficacy evaluation to evaluate burn degree, preventing burn wounds from deepening.

Corneal Collagen Cross-Linking With Riboflavin and UVA Regulates Hemangiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis in Rats

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to determine whether corneal collagen crosslinking (CXL) inhibits hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis during acute corneal inflammation in an in vivo rat model.

Methods

Inflammatory corneal neovascularization was induced by suture placement into a rat cornea. At day 3 after suture, a CXL protocol using riboflavin and UVA was administered after mechanical epithelial debridement. Hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis were analyzed morphometrically. CD45 and CD68 immunostaining evaluated corneal leucocyte and macrophage immune cell infiltration, respectively. A TUNEL assay detected stromal cell apoptosis. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis identified angiogenic and lymphangiogenic genes as well as proinflammatory cytokine expression. Western blot analysis characterized vascular endothelial cell CD31 and lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor (LYVE-1) protein expression.

Results

CXL treatment significantly reduced corneal pathologic suture-induced hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis 7 days after suture emplacement, but this procedure failed to affect hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis 14 days after suture. Increased cell apoptosis and reduced CD45+ and CD68+ cell infiltration were evident in CXL-treated rats on days 7 and 14 after suture emplacement. CXL treatment significantly decreased angiogenic and lymphangiogenic mRNA expression levels and both CD31 and LYVE-1 protein expression levels, whereas it increased proinflammatory cytokine levels on day 7 after suture emplacement. However, on day 14 after corneal neovascularization, angiogenic and lymphangiogenic mRNA gene expression levels were upregulated along with hematic CD31 and lymphatic LYVE-1 protein expression.

Conclusions

CXL treatment only temporarily inhibits corneal inflammatory-associated hemangiogenesis and lymphangiogenesis in vivo. Such insight suggests that future studies are warranted to develop novel CXL strategies with longer-lasting effectiveness in attenuating hemantic- and lymphatic-related corneal diseases.

Air pollutant particulate matter 2.5 induces dry eye syndrome in mice

In this study, we explored the effects of particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5) eye drops on the ocular surface structure and tear function in mice and established a novel animal model for dry eye research. We found that, following treatment with PM_2.5, the tear volume and, the tear film break-up time showed statistical differences at each time point (P < 0.05). The FL score of the PM_2.5-treated group was higher than that of others (P < 0.05). The average number of corneal epithelial layer cells in groups A and B was significantly lower than that in group C (P < 0.05). Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the number of corneal epithelial microvilli and corneal desmosomes was drastically reduced in group C. PM_2.5 induced apoptosis in the corneal superficial and basal epithelium and led to abnormal differentiation and proliferation of the ocular surface with higher expression levels of Ki67 and a reduced number of goblet cells in the conjunctival fornix in group C. PM_2.5 significantly increased the levels of TNF-α, NF-κB p65 (phospho S536), and NF-κB in the cornea. Thus, the topical administration of PM_2.5 in mice induces ocular surface changes that are similar to those of dry eye in humans, representing a novel model of dry eye.

Cytocidal effects of arenobufagin and hellebrigenin, two active bufadienolide compounds, against human glioblastoma cell line U-87

Glioblastoma is the most common and lethal intracranial tumor type, characterized by high angiogenic and infiltrative capacities. To provide a novel insight into therapeutic strategies against glioblastoma, the cytotoxicity of arenobufagin and hellebrigenin was investigated in the human glioblastoma cell line, U-87. Similar dose-dependent cytotoxicity was observed in the cells, whereas no detectable toxicity was confirmed in mouse primary astrocytes. Treatment with each drug downregulated the expression levels of Cdc25C, Cyclin B1 and survivin, which occurred in parallel with G₂/M phase arrest. Necrotic-like cell death was only observed in the cells treated with a relatively high concentration (>100 ng/ml). These results indicate that the two drugs exhibited distinct cytotoxicity against cancerous glial cells with high potency and selectivity, suggesting that growth inhibition associated with G₂/M phase arrest and/or necrosis were attributed to their toxicities. Activation of the p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway was also observed in treated cells. Notably, a specific inhibitor of p38 MAPK, SB203580, itself caused a significant decrease in cell viability, and further enhanced the cytotoxicity of the two drugs, suggesting an important pro-survival role for p38 MAPK. Given that p38 MAPK serves an essential role in promoting glioblastoma cell survival, developing a novel combination regimen of arenobufagin/hellebrigenin plus a p38 MAPK inhibitor may improve the efficacy of the two drugs, and may provide more therapeutic benefits to patients with glioblastoma. The qualitative assessment demonstrated the existence of arenobufagin in the cerebrospinal fluid of arenobufagin-treated rats, supporting its clinical application.

A mouse dry eye model induced by topical administration of the air pollutant particulate matter 10

AIM

To introduce a novel dry eye mouse model induced by topical administration of the air pollutant particulate matter 10 (PM₁₀).

METHOD

A total of 60 male BALB/c mice were used in this study and divided into two groups: group A (PBS eye drops, n=30) and group B (PM₁₀ eye drop group, n=30). Each treatment was dosed four times a day, every time 50ul with the concentration of 5mg/ml PM10, for 14 consecutive days in the right eye. The clinical manifestations of dry eye were measured before therapy and 4, 7 and 14days post-treatment respectively, which included the tear volume, tear break-up (BUT) time, corneal fluorescein staining, rose bengal staining, Lissamine Green staining and inflammatory index. Eye samples were collected on D14 and examined by histologic light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), corneal cytokeration 10 (K10) immunnostaining, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), NF-κB-p65 and NF-κB Western Blot analysis.

RESULTS

At 0d, 7d and 14d, there were no statistical changes in tear volume, BUT after treatment (P>0.05) with PBS in group A. In group B, all items showed statistical differences at each time point (P<0.05). At 14d after therapy, the fluorescein staining score of group B was higher than group A (P<0.05). The score of rose bengal staining and Lissamine Green staining in group B was also higher than that in group A (P<0.05). The number of mean layers of corneal epithelial cells in the group A was significantly lower than that in the group B (P<0.05). TEM and SEM revealed that the number of corneal epithelial microvilli were drastically reduced in group B. The number of corneal chondriosome/desmosomes was also reduced in group B by TEM. PM₁₀ induced apoptosis in the superficial and basal corneal epithelium, and leaded to abnormal differentiation and proliferation of the ocular surface with higher expression levels of K10 and reduced number of goblet cells in the conjunctival fornix in group B. PM₁₀ significantly increased the levels of TNF-α, NF-κB-p65 and NF-κB in the cornea.

CONCLUSION

PM₁₀ can damage the tear film function and cause the destruction of the structural organization of ocular surface in mice. Topical administration of PM₁₀ in mice induces ocular surface changes that are similar to those of dry eye in humans, representing a novel model of DES.

High-intensity corneal collagen crosslinking with riboflavin and UVA in rat cornea

Corneal collagen cross-linking (CXL) halts human corneal ectasias progression by increasing stromal mechanical stiffness. Although some reports describe that this procedure is effective in dealing with some infectious and immunologic corneal thinning diseases, there is a need for more animal models whose corneal thickness more closely resemble those occurring in these patients. To meet this need, we describe here high-intensity protocols that are safe and effective for obtaining CXL in rat corneas. Initially, a range of potentially effective UVA doses were evaluated based on their effectiveness in increasing tissue enzymatic resistance to dissolution. At UVA doses higher than a threshold level of 0.54 J/cm², resistance to enzymatic digestion increased relative to that in non-irradiated corneas. Based on the theoretical threshold CXL dose, a CXL regimen was established in which the UVA tissue irradiance was 9 mW/cm², which was delivered at doses of either 2.16, 2.7 or 3.24 J/cm². Their dose dependent effects were evaluated on ocular surface morphological integrity, keratocyte apoptotic frequency, tissue thickness and endothelial cell layer density. Doses of 2.16 and 2.7 J/cm² transiently decreased normal corneal transparency and increased thickness. These effects were fully reversed after 14 days. In contrast, 3.24 J/cm² had more irreversible side effects. Three days after treatment, apoptotic frequency in the CXL-2.16 group was lower than that at higher doses. Endothelial cell losses remained evident only in the CXL-3.24 group at 42 days posttreatment. Stromal fiber thickening was evident in all the CXL-treated groups. We determined both the threshold UVA dose using the high-intensity CXL procedure and identified an effective dose range that provides optimal CXL with minimal transient side effects in the rat cornea. These results may help to provide insight into how to improve the CXL outcome in patients afflicted with a severe corneal thinning disease.