Comprehensive Strategies for Metabolic Syndrome: How Nutrition, Dietary Polyphenols, Physical Activity, and Lifestyle Modifications Address Diabesity, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Neurodegenerative Conditions

Several hallmarks of metabolic syndrome, such as dysregulation in the glucose and lipid metabolism, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance, low-to-medium systemic inflammation, and intestinal microbiota dysbiosis, represent a pathological bridge between metabolic syndrome and diabesity, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative disorders. This review aims to highlight some therapeutic strategies against metabolic syndrome involving integrative approaches to improve lifestyle and daily diet. The beneficial effects of foods containing antioxidant polyphenols, intestinal microbiota control, and physical activity were also considered. We comprehensively examined a large body of published articles involving basic, animal, and human studie, as well as recent guidelines. As a result, dietary polyphenols from natural plant-based antioxidants and adherence to the Mediterranean diet, along with physical exercise, are promising complementary therapies to delay or prevent the onset of metabolic syndrome and counteract diabesity and cardiovascular diseases, as well as to protect against neurodegenerative disorders and cognitive decline. Modulation of the intestinal microbiota reduces the risks associated with MS, improves diabetes and cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and exerts neuroprotective action. Despite several studies, the estimation of dietary polyphenol intake is inconclusive and requires further evidence. Lifestyle interventions involving physical activity and reduced calorie intake can improve metabolic outcomes.

Daidzein and Equol: Ex Vivo and In Silico Approaches Targeting COX-2, iNOS, and the Canonical Inflammasome Signaling Pathway

BACKGROUND

The inflammasome is a cytosolic multiprotein complex associated with multiple autoimmune diseases. Phytochemical compounds in soy (Glycine max) foods, such as isoflavones, have been reported for their anti-inflammatory properties.

AIM

the anti-inflammatory activity of DZ (daidzein) and EQ (equol) were investigated in an ex vivo model of LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages and by molecular docking correlation.

METHODS

Cells were pre-treated with DZ (25, 50, and 100 µM) or EQ (5, 10, and 25 µM), followed by LPS stimulation. The levels of PGE2, NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β were analyzed by ELISA, whereas the expressions of COX-2, iNOS, NLRP3, ASC, caspase 1, and IL-18 were measured by Western blotting. Also, the potential for transcriptional modulation by targeting NF-κB, COX-2, iNOS, NLRP3, ASC, and caspase 1 was investigated by molecular docking.

RESULTS

The anti-inflammatory responses observed may be due to the modulation of NF-κB due to the binding of DZ or EQ, which is translated into decreased TNF-α, COX-2, iNOS, NLRP3, and ASC levels.

CONCLUSION

This study establishes that DZ and EQ inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory responses in peritoneal murine macrophages via down-regulation of NO and PGE2 generation, as well as the inhibition of the canonical inflammasome pathway, regulating NLRP3, and consequently decreasing IL-1β and IL-18 activation.

Anti-urolithiatic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of Erica arborea flowers and leaves hydromethanolic extracts: An ethnopharmacological study

Erica arborea L. is a medicinal plant vastly used in therapeutic purposes in several parts of the world for antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and diuretic purposes, and in treating urinary infections and kidney stones. The current investigation aimed to evaluate the medicinal use of E. arborea in Algeria's Bejaia region, and to examine the anti-urolithiatic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory (in vivo), analgesic, and toxicity effects of E. arborea hydromethanolic extracts from leaves (EALE) and flowers (EALE) to give a justification for its use in the traditional medicine. The in vitro anti-urolithiathic activity of E. arborea leaf and flower hydromethanolic extracts nucleation and aggregation of crystals were measured using spectrophotometric methods. The agar disk diffusion assay and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determination were employed to estimate the antibacterial effect of EAME against three Gram-positive and three Gram-negative bacterial strains in vitro. In addition, the xylene and croton oil-induced ear edema methods in mice were used to examine the topical and oral anti-inflammatory potential of the extracts. Similarly, the analgesic effect of the extract was assessed via the acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction in mice, whereas the acute toxicity of EAME was conducted following OECD guidelines. An ethnobotanical survey was conducted among 171 informants with 212 questionnaire cards. Results indicated that 28.04 % of people in the studied region used E. arborea in traditional folk medicine. Additionally, results revealed the presence of epicatechin, palmitic acid, and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside in the plant extracts. Results also showed that EAME exhibits significant and dose-dependent anti-urolithiatic activity in nucleation and aggregation assays. Furthermore, results revealed that the extracts exhibit significant antibacterial activity. The E. arborea flower extract (EAFE) showed maximum antibacterial activity, especially against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, S. gallinarum, and B. cereus. In addition, a greater minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) in this extract was found at 1.60 mg/mL against M. luteus strain compared to the positive control. Moreover, the EAME caused a significant inhibition influence in the xylene and croton oil-induced edematous in mice. In contrast, the topical anti-inflammatory potential showed that extracts exhibit a considerable anti-edematogenic effect in both animal models. In the writhing reaction induced by the acetic acid model, the two extracts significantly reduced abdominal contractions. Finally, results of the toxicity assay showed that EAME is safe and no deaths or changes in mice behavior were observed even when doses as high as 5 g/kg DW were used. From the ethnopharmacological studies, our consequences endorse the benefit of E. arborea in folk medicine. Results of this investigation suggest that the leaf and flower extracts of E. arborea exhibit notable anti-urolithiatic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antibacterial activities and are safe as a natural source of drugs with the above effects.

Modulation of Beta-Amyloid-Activated Primary Human Neutrophils by Dietary Phenols from Virgin Olive Oil

The defense mechanism against harmful stimuli is inflammation. Indeed, neurodegenerative disorders can arise as a result of a persistent neuroinflammation. Beta-amyloid (Aβ_1-42) is an early trigger in the origination of Alzheimer's disease, leading to synaptic and cognitive impairments. Virgin olive oil (VOO) is correlated with a decreased risk of developing immune-inflammatory disorders, but the potential effects of the phenolic fraction (PF) from VOO in the modulation of neuroinflammatory processes in neutrophils remain unknown. In this study, we investigated the ability of the PF to modulate the activation of Aβ_1-42-stimulated primary human neutrophils, focusing on the expression of gene and surface markers and the release of pro-inflammatory and chemoattractant mediators. Down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression in Aβ_1-42-treated neutrophils, among other changes, was reported. Furthermore, pretreatment with PF prevented neutrophil activation. The beneficial effects in the modulation of inflammatory responses show the relevance of VOO to achieve a healthier diet that can help prevent inflammatory diseases.

Kaurenoic acid nanocarriers regulates cytokine production and inhibit breast cancer cell migration

Breast cancer is the type of cancer with the highest incidence in women around the world. Noteworthy, the triple-negative subtype affects 20% of the patients while presenting the highest death rate among subtypes. This is due to its aggressive phenotype and the capability of invading other tissues. In general, tumor-associated macrophages (TAM) and other immune cells, are responsible for maintaining a favorable tumor microenvironment for inflammation and metastasis by secreting several mediators such as pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, chemokines like CCL2, and other proteins, as metalloproteinases of matrix (MMP). On the other hand, immunomodulatory agents can interfere in the immune response of TAM and change the disease prognosis. In this work, we prepared nanostructured lipid carriers containing kaurenoic acid (NLC-KA) to evaluate the effect on cytokine production in vitro of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) and the migratory process of 4 T1 breast cancer cells. NLC-KA prepared from a blend of natural lipids was shown to have approximately 90 nm in diameter with low polydispersity index. To test the effect on cytokine production in vitro in NLC-KA treated BMDM, ELISA assay was performed and pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were quantified. The formulation reduced the secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α cytokines while presenting no hemolytic activity. Noteworthy, an anti-migratory effect in 4 T1 breast cancer cells treated with NLC-KA was observed in scratch assays. Further, MMP9 and CCL2 gene expressions in both BMDM and 4 T1 treated cells confirmed that the mechanism of inhibition of migration is related to the blockade of this pathway by KA. Finally, cell invasion assays confirmed that NLC-KA treatment resulted in less invasiveness of 4 T1 cells than control, and it is independent of CCL2 stimulus or BMDM direct stimulus. Ultimately, NLC-KA was able to regulate the cytokine production in vitro and reduce the migration of 4 T1 breast cancer cells by decreasing MMP9 gene expression.

Ligstroside aglycon, an extra virgin olive oil secoiridoid, prevents inflammation by regulation of MAPKs, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, Nrf2/HO-1, and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages

Ligstroside aglycon (LA) is one of the main polyphenols in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO); nevertheless, it is scarcely investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects of LA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages, as well as the potential signaling pathways involved. Isolated macrophages were treated with LA (50, 25, and 12.5 μM) in the presence or absence of LPS (5 μg ml^-1) for 18 h. Cell viability was determined using the sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay. Nitric oxide (NO) and pro-inflammatory cytokine production was analyzed by the Griess method and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Protein expression of pro-inflammatory markers and signaling pathways were evaluated by western blot analysis. LA showed significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects through decreasing oxidative stress markers such as NO production, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and NADPH oxidase-1 (NOX-1) protein expression. Besides, LA was able to reduce pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and modulate cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2), and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGEs-1) protein overexpression. The mechanisms underlying these protective effects could be related via activation of nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) and inhibition of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and Janus kinase/signal transducer and activation of transcription (JAK2/STAT3) signaling pathways. In addition, LA inhibited non-canonical and canonical activation of a nucleotide-binding (NOD)-like receptor (NLRP3) inflammasome. We conclude that LA showed significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in LPS-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. However, further in vivo studies are warranted to further investigate the bioactivity of this interesting compound that might be a promising natural agent for the treatment of immune-inflammatory diseases.

Composition and Characterization of Cold Pressed Moringa oleifera Seed Oil

The present study aims to investigate the volatile compound and the triacylglycerol profiles of Tunisian cold pressed Moringa oleifera seed oil (MoSO) and to assess its thermal properties and its biological activities. GC-MS analysis identified thirty six phyto-compounds amounting to 98.99% of the total oil. These compounds were classified into eleven groups among which the fatty acid one exhibited the highest intensity (91.63%). Cis, 6-octadecenoic acid was the most abundant compound (70.68%). The triacylglycerol composition of MoSO was characterized by the predominance of the glycerol trioleate (OOO) (32.42±0.12%). Thermogravimetric analysis of MoSO showed that the oil possess an interesting thermal stability with a highly Onset temperatures (T_onset) of 390.72°C and 357.47°C, respectively in nitrogen and air atmospheres. By using the ABTS assay, MoSO exhibited an interesting antioxidant capacity of 365 μM TEAC. The oil was also endowed with a relatively strong anti-inflammatory activity since its treatment at the different concentrations tested (75, 150 and 300 μg/mL). However, no antimicrobial activity was observed. On the basis of the obtained results, MoSO could be used in diverse industrial applications such as pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food fields thanks to its thermal stability and interesting biological activities.

Reprogramming Metabolism of Macrophages as a Target for Kidney Dysfunction Treatment in Autoimmune Diseases

Chronic kidney disease (CKD), as one of the main complications of many autoimmune diseases, is difficult to cure, which places a huge burden on patients' health and the economy and poses a great threat to human health. At present, the mainstream view is that autoimmune diseases are a series of diseases and complications caused by immune cell dysfunction leading to the attack of an organism's tissues by its immune cells. The kidney is the organ most seriously affected by autoimmune diseases as it has a very close relationship with immune cells. With the development of an in-depth understanding of cell metabolism in recent years, an increasing number of scientists have discovered the metabolic changes in immune cells in the process of disease development, and we have a clearer understanding of the characteristics of the metabolic changes in immune cells. This suggests that the regulation of immune cell metabolism provides a new direction for the treatment and prevention of kidney damage caused by autoimmune diseases. Macrophages are important immune cells and are a double-edged sword in the repair process of kidney injury. Although they can repair damaged kidney tissue, over-repair will also lead to the loss of renal structural reconstruction function. In this review, from the perspective of metabolism, the metabolic characteristics of macrophages in the process of renal injury induced by autoimmune diseases are described, and the metabolites that can regulate the function of macrophages are summarized. We believe that treating macrophage metabolism as a target can provide new ideas for the treatment of the renal injury caused by autoimmune diseases.

Olive Oil Extracts and Oleic Acid Attenuate the LPS-Induced Inflammatory Response in Murine RAW264.7 Macrophages but Induce the Release of Prostaglandin E2

Olive oil contains high amounts of oleic acid (OA). Although OA has been described to inhibit inflammatory processes, the effects of olive oil on cellular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Therefore, we compared the effects of major fatty acids (FA) from olive oil with those of olive oil extracts (OOE) on inflammatory mediators and alterations in the cellular phospholipid composition in murine macrophages. Upon treatment with different OOE, FA compositions of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine RAW264.7 macrophages were analyzed using gas chromatography. Olive oil extracts and OA significantly reduced the LPS-induced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNos), cyclooxygenase (Cox2), and interleukin-6 mRNA. In addition, a significant decrease in Cox2 and iNos protein expression was observed. The formation of nitric oxide was significantly reduced, while the formation of prostaglandin (PG) E2 from arachidonic acid significantly increased after treatment with OOE or OA. The latter was associated with a shift in the phospholipid FA composition from arachidonic acid to OA, resulting in an elevated availability of arachidonic acid. Together, OOE and OA mediate anti-inflammatory effects in vitro but increase the release of arachidonic acid and hereinafter PGE2, likely due to elongation of OA and competitive incorporation of fatty acids into membrane phospholipids.

Microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 and its inhibitors: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic significance

Inflammation is closely linked to the abnormal phospholipid metabolism chain of cyclooxygenase-2/microsomal prostaglandin E₂ synthase-1/prostaglandin E₂ (COX-2/mPGES-1/PGE₂). In clinical practice, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as upstream COX-2 enzyme activity inhibitors are widely used to block COX-2 cascade to relieve inflammatory response. However, NSAIDs could also cause cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects due to its inhibition on other prostaglandins generation. To avoid this, targeting downstream mPGES-1 instead of upstream COX is preferable to selectively block overexpressed PGE₂ in inflammatory diseases. Some mPGES-1 inhibitor candidates including synthetic compounds, natural products and existing anti-inflammatory drugs have been proved to be effective in in vitro experiments. After 20 years of in-depth research on mPGES-1 and its inhibitors, ISC 27864 have completed phase II clinical trial. In this review, we intend to summarize mPGES-1 inhibitors focused on their inhibitory specificity with perspectives for future drug development.

Effect of polyphenol-rich extra-virgin olive oil on lipid profile and inflammatory biomarkers in patients undergoing coronary angiography: a randomised, controlled, clinical trial

The present study was conducted to compare the effects of high polyphenol extra-virgin olive oil (EVOO) with low polyphenol refined olive oil (ROO) on some cardiovascular risk factors in patients undergoing coronary angiography. In a randomised, controlled, parallel-arm, clinical trial, 40 patients with at least one classic cardiovascular risk factor who referred to coronary angiography were randomly allocated to two groups and receied 25 mL EVOO or ROO daily for 6 weeks. Plasma LDL-cholesterol significantly reduced in EVOO group (-9.52 ± 20.44 vs 8.68 ± 18.77 mg/dL, p = .007 for EVOO and ROO respectively). EVOO resulted in a significant reduction in plasma CRP (-0.40 ± 0.52 vs 0.007 ± 0.42 mg/L, p = .01 for EVOO and ROO respectively) and increased ex-vivo whole blood LPS-stimulated IL-10 production (12.13 ± 33.64 vs -17.47 ± 49.04 pg/mL, p = .035 for EVOO and ROO respectively). Daily consumption of polyphenol-rich EVOO in subjects who have been under medical treatment with risk-reducing agents could additionally improve LDL-C and selected inflammatory markers. Trial Registration Number: NCT03796780.

A review on management of cardiovascular diseases by olive polyphenols

Noncommunicable diseases have increasingly grown the cause of morbidities and mortalities worldwide. Among them, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) continue to be the major contributor to deaths. CVDs are common in the urban community population due to the substandard living conditions, which have a significant impact on the healthcare system, and over 23 million human beings are anticipated to suffer from the CVDs before 2030. At the moment, CVD physicians are immediately advancing both primary and secondary prevention modalities in high-risk populations. The cornerstone of CVD prevention is a healthy lifestyle that is more cost-effective than the treatments after disease onset. In fact, in the present scenario, comprehensive research conducted on food plant components is potentially efficacious in reducing some highly prevalent CVD risk factors, such as hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and atherosclerosis. Polyphenols of olive oil (OO), virgin olive oil (VOO), and extra virgin olive oil contribute an essential role for the management of CVDs. Olive oil induces cardioprotective effects due to the presence of a plethora of polyphenolic compounds, for example, oleuropein (OL), tyrosol, and hydroxytyrosol. The present study examines the bioavailability and absorption of major olive bioactive compounds, for instance, oleacein, oleocanthal, OL, and tyrosol. This review also elucidates the snobbish connection of olive polyphenols (OP) and the potential mechanism involved in combating various CVD results taken up from the in vitro and in vivo studies, such as animal and human model studies.

Structure-Biological Activity Relationships of Extra-Virgin Olive Oil Phenolic Compounds: Health Properties and Bioavailability

Extra-virgin olive oil is regarded as functional food since epidemiological studies and multidisciplinary research have reported convincing evidence that its intake affects beneficially one or more target functions in the body, improves health, and reduces the risk of disease. Its health properties have been related to the major and minor fractions of extra-virgin olive oil. Among olive oil chemical composition, the phenolic fraction has received considerable attention due to its bioactivity in different chronic diseases. The bioactivity of the phenolic compounds could be related to different properties such as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, although the molecular mechanism of these compounds in relation to many diseases could have different cellular targets. The aim of this review is focused on the extra-virgin olive oil phenolic fraction with particular emphasis on (a) biosynthesis, chemical structure, and influence factors on the final extra-virgin olive oil phenolic composition; (b) structure-antioxidant activity relationships and other molecular mechanisms in relation to many diseases; (c) bioavailability and controlled delivery strategies; (d) alternative sources of olive biophenols. To achieve this goal, a comprehensive review was developed, with particular emphasis on in vitro and in vivo assays as well as clinical trials. This report provides an overview of extra-virgin olive oil phenolic compounds as a tool for functional food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications.

Extra Virgin Olive Oil Polyphenols: Modulation of Cellular Pathways Related to Oxidant Species and Inflammation in Aging

The olive-oil-centered Mediterranean diet has been associated with extended life expectancy and a reduction in the risk of age-related degenerative diseases. Extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) itself has been proposed to promote a "successful aging", being able to virtually modulate all the features of the aging process, because of its great monounsaturated fatty acids content and its minor bioactive compounds, the polyphenols above all. Polyphenols are mostly antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds, able to modulate abnormal cellular signaling induced by pro-inflammatory stimuli and oxidative stress, as that related to NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), which have been identified as important modulators of age-related disorders and aging itself. This review summarizes existing literature about the interaction between EVOO polyphenols and NF-κB and Nrf-2 signaling pathways. Reported studies show the ability of EVOO phenolics, mainly hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol, to activate Nrf-2 signaling, inducing a cellular defense response and to prevent NF-κB activation, thus suppressing the induction of a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Literature data, although not exhaustive, indicate as a whole that EVOO polyphenols may significantly help to modulate the aging process, so tightly connected to oxidative stress and chronic inflammation.

Pleiotropic Biological Effects of Dietary Phenolic Compounds and their Metabolites on Energy Metabolism, Inflammation and Aging

Dietary phenolic compounds are considered as bioactive compounds that have effects in different chronic disorders related to oxidative stress, inflammation process, or aging. These compounds, coming from a wide range of natural sources, have shown a pleiotropic behavior on key proteins that act as regulators. In this sense, this review aims to compile information on the effect exerted by the phenolic compounds and their metabolites on the main metabolic pathways involved in energy metabolism, inflammatory response, aging and their relationship with the biological properties reported in high prevalence chronic diseases. Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated their pleiotropic molecular mechanisms of action and these findings raise the possibility that phenolic compounds have a wide variety of roles in different targets.

Green extraction of oil from Carum carvi seeds using bio-based solvent and supercritical fluid: Evaluation of its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities

INTRODUCTION

The consumption of health-promoting products such as oil seeds may improve human health and prevent certain diseases. Carvi seeds have the potential to produce oil with nutritional and functional properties rich in active compounds.

OBJECTIVE

To extract bioactive lipids from Carum carvi seeds using green methodologies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Supercritical-carbon dioxide (Sc-CO₂ ) and ethanol as co-solvent and bio-based solvent 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (MeTHF) were used to extract the oil from Carum carvi. The yield, the chemical composition, as well as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of green extracted oils were investigated and compared to those obtained with conventional methods (hexane and Folch system).

RESULTS

MeTHF extraction gave higher oil yield than that obtained by hexane. Fatty acids composition of the two obtained green extracted oils was similar to conventional extracted ones where petroselinic (39-43%), linoleic (29-31%) and oleic (19-21%) acids were the major compounds. Furthermore, MeTHF and Sc-CO₂ green extracted oils were enriched of bioactive compounds including sterols (5.4 and 7.3 mg/g oil) and total polyphenols (9.3 and 7.6 mg GAE/g oil) which were correlated to enhanced antiradical capacity. Moreover, the green extracted oils exhibited high anti-inflammatory capacity inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) release in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages with IC₅₀ values of 28 and 24 μg/mL.

CONCLUSION

Green solvents are a good alternative to petroleum solvents to recover oil from carvi seeds with high amount of nutritionally important fatty acids, along with significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential.

Hydroxytyrosol Decreases LPS- and α-Synuclein-Induced Microglial Activation In Vitro

Neuroinflammation is a common feature shared by neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), and seems to play a key role in their development and progression. Microglia cells, the principal orchestrators of neuroinflammation, can be polarized in different phenotypes, which means they are able to have anti-inflammatory, pro-inflammatory, or neurodegenerative effects. Increasing evidence supports that the traditional Mediterranean dietary pattern is related to the reduction of cognitive decline in neurodegenerative diseases. A considerable intake of plant foods, fish, and extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), as well as a moderate consumption of red wine, all characteristic of the Mediterranean diet (MD), are behind these effects. These foods are especially rich in polyphenols, being the most relevant in the MD hydroxytyrosol (HT) and their derivatives present in EVOO, which have demonstrated a wide array of biological activities. Here, we demonstrate that HT is able to reduce the inflammation induced by two different stimuli: lipopolysaccharide and α-synuclein. We also study the possible molecular mechanisms involved in the anti-inflammatory effect of HT, including the study of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, and inflammasome. Our data support the use of HT to prevent the inflammation associated with PD and shed light into the relationship between MD and this neurological disorder.

Effects of phytochemicals on cellular signaling: reviewing their recent usage approaches

Most of the previous studies in last three decades report evidence of interactions between the different phytochemicals and the proteins involved in signal transduction pathways using in silico, in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo analyses. However, extrapolation of these findings for clinical purposes has not been that fruitful. The efficacy of the phytochemicals in vivo studies is limited by parameters such as solubility, metabolic degradation, excretion, etc. Various approaches have now been devised to circumvent these limitations. Recently, chemical modification of the phytochemicals are demonstrated to reduce some of the limitations and improve their efficacy. Similar to traditional medicines several combinatorial phytochemical formulations have shown to be more efficient. Further, phytochemicals have been reported to be even more efficient in the form of nanoparticles. However, systematic evaluation of their efficacy, mode of action in pathway modulation, usage and associated challenges is required to be done. The present review begins with basic understanding of how signaling cascades regulate cellular response and the consequences of their dysregulation further summarizing the developments and problems associated with the dietary phytochemicals and also discuss recent approaches in strengthening these compounds in pharmacological applications. Only context relevant studies have been reviewed. Considering the limitations and scope of the article, authors do not claim inclusion of all the early and recent studies.

Dietary oleuropein and its new acyl-derivate attenuate murine lupus nephritis through HO-1/Nrf2 activation and suppressing JAK/STAT, NF-κB, MAPK and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathways

Systemic lupus erythemathosus (SLE) is a chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease which can affect multiple organ systems, without an effective and safe treatment. Olive leaf extracts are of special interest for their therapeutic effects. Oleuropein (OL) is the most abundant constituents of olive leaf extract and possesses many beneficial properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of dietary OL and its new derivate, peracetylated oleuropein (Per-OL), in a pristane-induced SLE model. Mice received an injection of pristane or saline solution and were fed with experimental diets: enriched with OL and Per-OL. The levels of proinflammatory cytokines and markers were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The protein expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1, heme oxygenase (HO-1), nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT), nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and inflammasome nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeats-containing family, pyrin domain-containing-3 (NLRP3) pathways activation were determined in kidneys by Western blot. OL and Per-OL significantly reduced renal damage and decreased serum matrix metalloproteinase 3 and prostaglandine E₂ kidneys levels. Our findings indicate that Nrf2 and HO-1 antioxidant protein expressions were up-regulated in mice fed with OL and Per-OL diets, whereas the activation of JAK/STAT, MAPK, NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways was significantly ameliorated. These results suggest that OL and Per-OL supplementation might provide a new alternative approach as a preventive/palliative treatment of nephritis in SLE management.

Oleocanthal Modulates LPS-Induced Murine Peritoneal Macrophages Activation via Regulation of Inflammasome, Nrf-2/HO-1, and MAPKs Signaling Pathways

The present study was designed to investigate the role of the canonical and noncanonical inflammasome, MAPKs and NRF-2/HO-1, signaling pathways involved in the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of oleocanthal in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. Isolated cells were treated with oleocanthal in the presence or absence of LPS (5 μg mL^-1) for 18 h. Oleocanthal showed a potent reduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (25 μM, 50. 612 ± 0.02; 50 μM, 53. 665 ± 0.09; 100 μM, 52. 839 ± 0.02), nitrites (25 μM, 0.631 ± 0.07; 50 μM, 0.652 ± 0.07; 100 μM, 0.711 ± 0.08), and pro-inflammatory cytokines levels when compared with LPS-DMSO-treated control cells. In terms of enzymes protein expression, oleocanthal was able to downregulate iNOS (25 μM, 0.173 ± 0.02; 50 μM, 0.149 ± 0.01; 100 μM, 0.150 ± 0.01; p < 0.001), COX-2 (25 μM, 0.482 ± 0.08; 50 μM, 0.469 ± 0.05; 100 μM, 0.418 ± 0.06; p < 0.001), and mPGES-1 (25 μM, 0.185 ± 0.11; 50 μM, 0.218 ± 0.13; 100 μM, 0.161 ± 0.15; p < 0.001) as well as p38 (25 μM, 0.366 ± 0.11; 50 μM, 0.403 ± 0.13; 100 μM, 0.362 ± 0.15; p < 0.001), JNK (25 μM, 0.443 ± 0.11; 50 μM, 0.514 ± 0.13; 100 μM, 0.372 ± 0.15; p < 0.001), and ERK (25 μM, 0.294 ± 0.01; 50 μM, 0.323 ± 0.01; 100 μM, 0.274 ± 0.01; p < 0.001) protein phosphorylation, which was accompanied by an upregulation of Nrf-2 (25 μM, 1.57 ± 0.01; 50 μM, 1.54 ± 0.01; 100 μM, 1.63 ± 0.05; p < 0.05) and HO-1(25 μM, 2.12 ± 0,03; 50 μM, 2.24 ± 0.01; 100 μM, 1.92 ± 0.05; p < 0.01) expression in comparison with LPS-DMSO cells. Moreover, oleocanthal inhibited canonical and noncanonical inflammasome signaling pathways. Thus, oleocanthal might be a promising natural agent for future treatment of immune-inflammatory diseases.

Impact of polyphenols on mast cells with special emphasis on the effect of quercetin and luteolin

Polyphenols are ubiquitous in food and have long been recognized to possess antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. Mast cells (MCs) are implicated in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, allergy, autoimmunity and cancer. MCs derive from hematopoietic progenitor cells, reside virtually in all vascularized tissue and are activated by crosslinking of FceRI-bound IgE (at very high affinity: 1 × 10¹⁰ M^-1) with multivalent antigen. MCs in cytoplasmic granules release preformed chemical mediators, and also they can release lipid mediators and cytokines/chemokines without degranulation.

Luteolin, 3’,4’,5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone, is a flavonoid contained in many kinds of plants including vegetables and fruits. This anti-oxidant product inhibits interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) production from tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-triggered keratinocytes, and is a candidate for use in alternative therapies in the treatment of inflammatory skin disorders.

Quercetin (3,3’,4’,5,7-pentahydroxyflavone) is a ubiquitous flavonoid which exhibits anti-cancer, anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties and causes a reduction in the availability of nitrite that influences vascular function. Quercetin exerts physiological functions though the interaction with phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate kinase (PI3K), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK), kinase (MEK) 1, and others, and has a negative effect on FceRI cross-linking and other activating receptors on mast cells. In this article we report for the first time the interrelationship between mast cells and polyphenols.

Polyphenolic extract from extra virgin olive oil inhibits the inflammatory response in IL-1β-activated synovial fibroblasts

The polyphenolic extract (PE) from extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) has been shown to possess important anti-inflammatory and joint protective properties in murine models of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This study was designed to evaluate the effects of PE on IL-1β-activated human synovial fibroblasts SW982 cell line. PE from EVOO treatment inhibited IL-1β-induced matrix metalloproteases (P&lt;0·001), TNF-α and IL-6 production (P&lt;0·001). Similarly, IL-1β-induced cyclo-oxygenase-2 and microsomal PGE synthase-1 up-regulations were down-regulated by PE (P&lt;0·001). Moreover, IL-1β-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and NF-κB activation were ameliorated by PE (P&lt;0·001). These results suggest that PE from EVOO reduces the production of proinflammatory mediators in human synovial fibroblasts; particularly, these protective effects could be related to the inhibition of MAPK and NF-κB signalling pathways. Taken together, PE from EVOO probably could provide an attractive complement in management of diseases associated with over-activation of synovial fibroblasts, such as RA.

Anti-inflammatory effects of olive-derived hydroxytyrosol on lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 cells

The control of inflammation, which arises from complex biological responses to harmful stimuli, is an important determinant of both clinical outcomes and patient comfort. However, the side effects of many current therapies such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs mean that new safe treatments are required. We previously reported that 12.5 µg/ml hydroxytyrosol (HT) suppressed gene expression of the inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) isoform and NO production, in mouse peritoneal macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), where nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) gene expression was not altered. The present study evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects of various concentrations of HT in LPS-induced RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. HT suppressed NF-κB signaling and downregulated LPS-mediated expression of iNOS, cyclooxygenase-2, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and interleukin-1β at 12.5 µg/ml, resulting in reduced production of NO and prostaglandin E₂. At lower concentrations, HT seemed to act via another signaling pathway to regulate the inflammatory response. In contrast, HT did not suppress LPS-induced expression of phosphorylated p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase. This study showed that HT had anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. HT is already available as a nutritional supplement and no toxic effects have been reported. Hence, HT represents a potential novel anti-inflammatory agent.

Virgin olive oil and its phenol fraction modulate monocyte/macrophage functionality: a potential therapeutic strategy in the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus

Monocytes and macrophages are critical effectors and regulators of inflammation and innate immune response, which appear altered in different autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Recent studies suggested that virgin olive oil (VOO) and particularly its phenol compounds might possess preventive effects on different immune-inflammatory diseases, including SLE. Here, we evaluated the effects of VOO (and sunflower oil) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated peritoneal macrophages from a model of pristane-induced SLE in BALB/c mice, as well as those of the phenol fraction (PF) from VOO on the immune-inflammatory activity and plasticity in monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages from healthy volunteers. The release of nitrite and inflammatory cytokines was lower in LPS-treated peritoneal macrophages from pristane-SLE mice fed the VOO diet when compared with the sunflower oil diet. PF from VOO similarly decreased the secretion of nitrite and inflammatory cytokines and expression of inducible nitric oxide, PPARγ and Toll-like receptor 4 in LPS-treated human monocytes. PF from VOO also prevented the deregulation of human monocyte subset distribution by LPS and blocked the genetic signature of M1 macrophages while favouring the phenotype of M2 macrophages upon canonical polarisation of naïve human macrophages. For the first time, our study provides several lines of in vivo and in vitro evidence that VOO and PF from VOO target and counteract inflammatory pathways in the monocyte–macrophage lineage of mice with pristane-induced SLE and of healthy subjects, which is a meaningful foundation for further development and application in preclinical and clinical use of PF from VOO in patients with SLE.

PDE4 inhibitor rolipram inhibits the expression of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 by a mechanism dependent on MAP kinase phosphatase-1

Phosphodiesterase‐4 (PDE4) inhibitors have recently been introduced to the treatment of COPD and psoriatic arthritis. Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase‐1 (mPGES‐1) is an inducible enzyme synthesizing PGE₂, the most abundant prostanoid related to inflammation and inflammatory pain. mPGES‐1 is a potential drug target for novel anti‐inflammatory treatments aiming at an improved safety profile as compared to NSAIDs. Here we investigated the effect of the PDE4 inhibitor rolipram on the expression of mPGES‐1 in macrophages; and a potential mediator role in the process for MAP kinase phosphatase‐1 (MKP‐1) which is an endogenous factor limiting the activity of the proinflammatory MAP kinases p38 and JNK. The expression of mPGES‐1 was decreased, whereas that of MKP‐1 was enhanced by rolipram in wild‐type murine macrophages. Interestingly, rolipram did not reduce mPGES‐1 expression in peritoneal macrophages from MKP‐1‐deficient mice. A reduced phosphorylation of JNK, but not p38 MAP kinase, was specifically associated with the decreased expression of mPGES‐1. Accordingly, mPGES‐1 expression was suppressed by JNK but not p38 inhibitor. These findings underline the significance of the increased MKP‐1 expression and decreased JNK phosphorylation associated with the downregulated expression of mPGES‐1 by PDE4 inhibitors in inflammation.

A Functional Food Mixture "Protector" Reinforces the Protective Immune Parameters against Viral Flu Infection in Mice

Background: Viral influenza infection causes serious health issues especially when an outbreak occurs. Although influenza virus vaccines are available and each year manufactures modify the vaccine depending on the expected mutated strain, it is still far from satisfactory, mainly in young children and older adults. Therefore, a product that can support and shape the immune system to protect against viral flu infections is highly essential. Methods: A functional food water-soluble mixture of pomegranate, red grape, dates, olive fruit, figs, and ginger extracts, termed herein “Protector”, was prepared and tested in stimulating/modulating the production of specific cytokines, and hemagglutinin inhibition (HAI) antibodies following viral flu vaccination in mice. Results: A single intraperitoneal or multiple oral administration for 1–7 days of “Protector” significantly increased the production of interferon (IFN)-γ and interleukin (IL)-12 in blood, spleen, and lungs of mice. When “Protector” was orally administered for one week following a single vaccine injection (primary immunization) or for two weeks (one week apart) following double vaccine injections (secondary immunization), mice significantly produced higher titers of HAI antibodies. This increase in HAI antibodies was associated with Pillow-inducing significant and different changes in vaccine-induced IFN-γ, IL-12, IL-6 and IL-22 following primary and secondary immunizations. Conclusions: “Protector” administration reinforces the protective immune parameters against viral flu infection. Therefore, after performing preclinical toxicology studies and ensuring its safety, “Protector” should be considered a potential product to be tested in clinical trials to conclude its efficacy in reducing the devastating effects of flu infection in humans and its outbreaks.

Olive oil polyphenols reduce oxysterols -induced redox imbalance and pro-inflammatory response in intestinal cells

Dietary habits may strongly influence intestinal homeostasis. Oxysterols, the oxidized products of cholesterol present in cholesterol-containing foodstuffs, have been shown to exert pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory effects, altering intestinal epithelial layer and thus contributing to the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel diseases and colon cancer. Extra virgin olive oil polyphenols possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, and concentrate in the intestinal lumen, where may help in preventing intestinal diseases. In the present study we evaluated the ability of an extra virgin olive oil phenolic extract to counteract the pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory action of a representative mixture of dietary oxysterols in the human colon adenocarcinoma cell line (Caco-2) undergoing full differentiation into enterocyte-like cells. Oxysterols treatment significantly altered differentiated Caco-2 cells redox status, leading to oxidant species production and a decrease of GSH levels, after 1 h exposure, followed by an increase of cytokines production, IL-6 and IL-8, after 24 h. Oxysterol cell treatment also induced after 48 h an increase of NO release, due to the induction of iNOS. Pretreatment with the phenolic extract counteracted oxysterols effects, at least in part by modulating one of the main pathways activated in the cellular response to the action of oxysterols, the MAPK-NF-kB pathway. We demonstrated the ability of the phenolic extract to directly modulate p38 and JNK1/2 phosphorylation and activation of NF-kB, following its inhibitor IkB phosphorylation. The phenolic extract also inhibited iNOS induction, keeping NO concentration at the control level. Our results suggest a protective effect at intestinal level of extra virgin olive oil polyphenols, able to prevent or limit redox unbalance and the onset and progression of chronic intestinal inflammation.

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Dietary oxysterols exerted pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory effects in differentiated Caco-2 cells.

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H₂O₂ production, GSH decrease, IL-6 and IL-8 release were detected.

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NO release due to iNOS induction was higher than controls in oxysterols treated cells.

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Olive oil phenolic extract efficiently counteracted oxysterols effects.

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Phenolic extract directly modulated p38 and JNK MAPK/NF-κB signaling axis.

Extra virgin olive oil: a key functional food for prevention of immune-inflammatory diseases

Nowadays, it is clear that an unhealthy diet is one of the prime factors that contributes to the rise of inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity in the populations of both developed and developing countries. The Mediterranean diet has been associated with a reduced incidence of certain pathologies related to chronic inflammation and the immune system. Olive oil, the principal source of dietary lipids of the Mediterranean diet, possesses a high nutritional quality and a particular composition, which is especially relevant in the case of Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO). EVOO is obtained from olives solely by mechanical or other physical preparation methods, under conditions that do not alter the natural composition. EVOO is described as a key bioactive food with multiple beneficial properties and it may be effective in the management of some immune-inflammatory diseases. In this review, the key research is summarised which provides evidence of the beneficial effects of EVOO and its minor components focusing on their mechanisms on immune-inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, inflammatory bowel disease and sclerosis.

Olive oil polyphenols extracts inhibit inflammatory markers in J774A.1 murine macrophages and scavenge free radicals

Here we evaluate the olive oil antiradical and anti-inflammatory potential through its polyphenols extracts and examine the influence of olive maturity on olive oil quality properties, polyphenols composition and biological potentials. Samples have been obtained from minor Tunisian olive cultivars (Chemchali, Fouji and Zarrazi) at different maturity indices. Principal quality properties were evaluated and polyphenols analysis was carried out by Folin Ciocalteu reagent and HPLC-UV-MS. Antiradical activity was examined by DPPH and FRAP scavenging assays while J774A.1 murine macrophages were used to evaluate anti-inflammatory potential by analyzing NO production with Griess reagent method and iNOS and COX-2 expression by cytofluorimetric analysis. Our results revealed that quality characteristics, total phenol content, as well as phenolic compound concentrations were significantly affected by the olive maturity levels. On the other hand, the polyphenols extracts showed an interesting radical scavenging capacity and a potential ability to inhibit inflammatory markers at 90% for NO release and 75% for iNOS expression. Thus, our study establishes that olive oil through its polyphenols extracts has a substantial antiradical and anti-inflammatory potential. Likewise a lot of attention should be attributed to olive ripening level in order to decide the optimum harvesting time.

Olive Oil Phenolics Prevent Oxysterol-Induced Proinflammatory Cytokine Secretion and Reactive Oxygen Species Production in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells, Through Modulation of p38 and JNK Pathways

Scope

The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) polyphenols to counteract the proinflammatory effects induced by dietary and endogenous oxysterols in ex vivo immune cells.

Methods and results

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), separated from the whole blood of healthy donors, were utilized and were stimulated with an oxysterols mixture, in the presence of physiologically relevant concentrations of the EVOO polyphenols, hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, and homovanillic alcohol. Oxysterols significantly increased the production of proinflammatory cytokines, interleukin‐1β, regulated on activation, normal T‐cell expressed and secreted and macrophage migration inhibitory factor in ex vivo cultured PBMCs. Increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were also detected along with increased phosphorylation of the p38 and JNK. All phenolic compounds significantly reduced cytokine secretion induced by the oxysterols and inhibited ROS production and mitogen activated protein kinase phosphorylation.

Conclusions

These results suggest that extra virgin olive oil polyphenols modulate the immune response induced by dietary and endogenous cholesterol oxidation products in human immune cells and may hold benefit in controlling chronic immune and/or inflammatory processes.

The phenolic fraction of extra virgin olive oil modulates the activation and the inflammatory response of T cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and healthy donors

SCOPE

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic multiorgan autoimmune disease characterized by immune deregulation, which involves altered T-cell response and imbalance of cytokine production. The phenolic fraction (PE) of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) possesses anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties and exerts preventive effects in murine models of immune-inflammatory diseases, such as SLE. The present study was designed to determine the in vitro effects of the PE from EVOO on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from inactive patients with SLE and healthy donors.

METHODS AND RESULTS

T-cell phenotype was investigated by flow cytometry, cytokine levels were determined by ELISA, and protein expression was detected by Western blot. The PE of EVOO decreased the frequency of CD69⁺ cells and the secretion of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-10. Moreover, PE increased the expression of I-kappa-B-α and decreased extracellular signal regulated kinase phosphorylation on PBMC from patients with SLE and healthy donors.

CONCLUSION

PE modulates cytokine production and attenuates induced T-cell activation, probably through NF-κB signaling pathway, providing the first evidence that PE from EVOO has an anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory role in SLE patients and it might therefore be considered as a dietary complement in SLE management.

Dietary extra virgin olive oil attenuates kidney injury in pristane-induced SLE model via activation of HO-1/Nrf-2 antioxidant pathway and suppression of JAK/STAT, NF-κB and MAPK activation

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by a widespread organ involvement. Recent studies have suggested that extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) might possess preventive effects on this immunoinflammation-related disease. However, its role in SLE remained unknown. In this work, we evaluated the effects of EVOO diet in a pristane-induced SLE model in mice. Three-month-old mice received an injection of pristane or saline solution and were fed with different experimental diets: sunflower oil diet or EVOO diet. After 24weeks, mice were sacrificed, spleens were collected and kidneys were removed for immunoinflammatory detections. The kidney expression of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1, heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1), nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) and nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathways were studied by western blotting. In addition to macroscopic and histological analyses, serum matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP-3) levels and proinflammatory cytokines production in splenocytes were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunoassay. We have demonstrated that EVOO diet significantly reduced renal damage and decreased MMP-3 serum and PGE2 kidney levels as well as the proinflammatory cytokines production in splenocytes. Our data indicate that Nrf-2 and HO-1 protein expressions were up-regulated in those mice fed with EVOO and the activation of JAK/STAT, MAPK and NF-κB pathways were drastically ameliorated. These results support the interest of EVOO as a beneficial functional food exerting a preventive/palliative role in the management of SLE.