Discovery of new pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives as anticancer agents targeting EGFRWT and EGFRT790M

Development of new anticancer thiadiazole-sulfonamides as dual EGFR/carbonic anhydrase inhibitors

BACKGROUND

Thiadiazole-sulfonamide derivatives were synthesized as dual inhibitors of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and carbonic anhydrase IX (CA-IX) to develop selective anticancer agents.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity was evaluated against MDA-MB-231 and MCF-7 breast cancer cells, with selectivity tested on Vero cells. Enzymatic inhibition studies were conducted against EGFR and CA-IX, using erlotinib and acetazolamide as reference drugs. Apoptosis was assessed through gene expression analysis of BAX/Bcl-2, caspase-8, and caspase-9, alongside flow cytometry for apoptosis and cell cycle analysis. Molecular docking and 200 ns molecular dynamics (MD) simulations evaluated binding interactions. Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations and in silico ADMET predictions assessed stability, electronic properties, and safety.

RESULTS

Compound 14 exhibited potent cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ = 5.78 μM, MDA-MB-231; 8.05 μM, MCF-7) and high selectivity (IC₅₀ = 313.08 μM, Vero). It inhibited EGFR (IC₅₀ = 5.92 nM) and CA-IX (IC₅₀ = 63 nM), surpassing reference drugs. Apoptosis induction was confirmed by a 13.97-fold increase in BAX/Bcl-2, caspase upregulation, and G1-phase arrest. Computational analyses confirmed stable binding and favorable safety.

CONCLUSIONS

Compound 14 represents a promising dual EGFR/CA-IX inhibitor with selective anticancer activity. Further in vivo studies are warranted.

Annual review of EGFR inhibitors in 2024

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors play a crucial role in the treatment of EGFR mutation-driven cancers, such as non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In 2024, significant breakthroughs were made in new drug development, resistance mechanisms, and combination therapy strategies. This review summarizes the key studies published in 2024, with a focus on the design strategies, structure-activity relationships (SAR), mechanisms of action, and both in vitro and in vivo activities of EGFR inhibitors. The aim is to provide new research perspectives and theoretical foundations for developing highly effective and selective inhibitors targeting diverse EGFR mutations.

Anti-angiogenic and anti-oxidant effects of 2-NTI indole derivative vs. suramin in ex vivo, in vivo, and in vitro studies

Angiogenesis is an intricate pathway that involves the formation of new blood capillaries from old, functioning ones. Improper angiogenesis is a feature of numerous maladies, including malignancy and autoimmune disorders. Indole-related derivatives are believed to interfere with the mitotic spindle, inhibiting the multiplication, and invasion of cancerous human cells. 5-bromo-2-(5-(4-nitrophenyl)-4H-1,2,4-triazol-3-yl)-1H-indole (2-NTI) is one of such compounds with outstanding anti-angiogenic, and anti-proliferative properties. To evaluate 2-NTI's antiangiogenic and anti-oxidant activities and potential mechanisms of action in comparison with the standard agent, suramin. The rat aortic ring (RAR) and Chick chorioallantois membrane (CAM) assays were employed to determine antiangiogenic efficacy and dose response, while the DPPH assay estimated free radical scavenging activity. Besides, an MTT test was performed to evaluate antiproliferative activity in HUVECs; however, RT-PCR assessed the gene expression level of VEGF in HCT116 cells. 2-NTI displayed a significant and dose-dependent suppression of angiogenesis (83.04%) at 100 μg/mL concentration versus the negative controls in the RAR assay. 2-NTI also showed no toxicity in the HUVEC cell line, with an IC50 of 876.6 μg/mL, but it significantly reduced the formation of free radicals (IC50 of 135.2 µg/mL) and VEGF gene expression (at doses of 200 and 400 µg/mL) versus the negative controls and suramin. In CAM model, 2-NTI generated considerable blood vessel regression as compared to the negative control. 2-NTI possesses potent anti-angiogenic actions, which might be explained by its profound anti-proliferative and free radical detoxifying activities.

Advances in structural identification of some thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine scaffolds as antitumor molecules: Synthetic approaches and control programmed cancer cell death potential

Thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine fragment is not only bioistostere to quinazoline ring but also to purines which exist in nucleic acids responsible for several key biological processes of the living cells, thus it is of a great interest for many researchers. Thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine ring has become an important scaffold for different compounds with versatile pharmacological activities including anticancer. These compounds exert their anticancer activity through variant mechanisms of action; one of these is the induction of different programmed cell death types as apoptosis and necroptosis which is an effective approach for cancer treatment. This review highlights the different synthetic approaches of recent thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine analogs along with their anticancer significance through induction of apoptotic or necroptotic cell death with illustration of the structure-activity relationship (SAR).

New thiazolidin-4-ones as anti-cervical cancer agents targeting EGFR: design, synthesis, and computational studies

AIM

A new series of 3,4-dihydronaphthalen-1(2 h)-ylidene)hydrazineylidene)-5-substituted thiazolidin-4-one derivatives were designed and synthesized.

RESULTS & METHODOLOGY

The new compounds were screened for in vitro antitumor activity against Hela cancer cell line. The compounds 7b, 7 h, and 7i produced more potent cytotoxicity than doxorubicin with IC50 values of 1.83 ± 0.1, 2.54 ± 0.14, 2.75 ± 0.15, and 3.63 ± 0.2 μM, respectively. They also showed a promising safety profile against WI-38 normal cells. In addition, compound 7b produced a promising multi-kinase inhibition against EGFR (WT) while being very selective toward the mutant forms (L858R and T790M) with IC50 values of 0.099 ± 0.006, 0.064 ± 0.006, and 0.026 ± 0.007 μM, respectively, in comparison to gefitinib and osimertinib. A study of the cell cycle in Hela cells showed that 7b arrests cell cycle in the pre-G1 phase and causes early and late apoptosis. Eventually, the molecular docking results showed that 7b had good-binding interactions with EGFRWT, EGFRL858R, and EGFRT790M.

CONCLUSION

Compound 7b was predicted to have promising oral absorption, good drug-likeness, and low toxicity risks in humans. Moreover, MD simulations confirmed the stable complexes of 7b with EGFRWT, EGFRL858R, and EGFRT790M (with RMSD 0.12-0.35 nm, RMSF 0.2-0.55 nm, SASA 140-150, and Rg 1.80-2.00 nm).

Design, synthesis, molecular modelling and biological evaluation of novel 6-amino-5-cyano-2-thiopyrimidine derivatives as potent anticancer agents against leukemia and apoptotic inducers

Herein, a novel series of 6-amino-5-cyano-2-thiopyrimidines and condensed pyrimidines analogues were prepared. All the synthesized compounds (1a-c, 2a-c, 3a-c, 4a-r and 5a-c) were evaluated for in vitro anticancer activity by the National Cancer Institute (NCI; MD, USA) against 60 cell lines. Compound 1c showed promising anticancer activity and was selected for the five-dose testing. Results demonstrated that compound 1c possessed broad spectrum anti-cancer activity against the nine cancerous subpanels tested with selectivity ratio ranging from 0.7 to 39 at the GI50 level with high selectivity towards leukaemia. Mechanistic studies showed that Compound 1c showed comparable activity to Duvelisib against PI3Kδ (IC50 = 0.0034 and 0.0025 μM, respectively) and arrested cell cycle at the S phase and displayed significant increase in the early and late apoptosis in HL60 and leukaemia SR cells. The necrosis percentage showed a significant increase from 1.13% to 3.41% in compound 1c treated HL60 cells as well as from 1.51% to 4.72% in compound 1c treated leukaemia SR cells. Also, compound 1c triggered apoptosis by activating caspase 3, Bax, P53 and suppressing Bcl2. Moreover, 1c revealed a good safety profile against human normal lung fibroblast cell line (WI-38 cells). Molecular analysis of Duvelisib and compound 1c in PI3K was performed. Finally, these results suggest that 2-thiopyrimidine derivative 1c might serve as a model for designing novel anticancer drugs in the future.

Anti-proliferative 2,3-dihydro-1,3,4-thiadiazoles targeting VEGFR-2: Design, synthesis, in vitro, and in silico studies

In this study, we present the design, synthesis, and evaluation of six new thiadiazole derivatives designed as VEGFR-2 inhibitors. The most promising compound, 18b, demonstrated promising inhibitory activity against VEGFR-2, with an IC50 value of 0.165 µg/mL. The in vitro assessments on MCF-7 and HepG2 cell lines revealed the superior anti-proliferative effects of compound 18b, exhibiting IC50 values of 0.06 and 0.17 µM, respectively. Further investigations into the cell cycle distribution of compound 18b on MCF-7 cells exhibited a cell cycle arrest at the S phase (52.96 %) and significantly reducing the percentage of cells in the G0-G1 and G2/M phases. Additionally, compound 18b demonstrated a remarkable pro-apoptotic effect, with 45.29 % total apoptosis, characterized by both early and late apoptosis, and minimal necrosis. These findings were corroborated by RT-PCR analysis, revealing a significant downregulation of the anti-apoptotic gene Bcl2 and upregulation of the pro-apoptotic gene BAX in compound 18b-treated cells compared to control MCF-7 cells. Moreover, in silico studies involving molecular docking, Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations, Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations, MM-GBSA, Principle Component Analysis of Trajectories (PCAT), in addition to Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity (ADMET) predictions underscored the molecular interactions, energetics, and pharmacokinetic properties of compound 18b and the other derivatives further supporting its potential. Our integrated approach, combining in vitro experimens with in silico predictions provides valuable insights into the therapeutic potential of compound 18b as a robust VEGFR-2 inhibitor and lays the groundwork for future optimization.

An outlook of docking analysis and structure-activity relationship of pyrimidine-based analogues as EGFR inhibitors against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC)

Almost 80% of lung cancer diagnoses each year correspond to non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The percentage of NSCLC with EGFR overexpression ranges from 40% to 89%, with squamous tumors showing the greatest rates (89%) and adenocarcinomas showing the lowest rates (41%). Therefore, in NSCLC therapy, blocking the EGFR-driven pathway by inhibiting the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain of EGFR has exhibited significant improvement. In this view, several small molecules particularly pyrimidine/fused pyrimidine scaffolds were intended for molecular hybridization to develop EGFR-TK inhibitors. However, the associated limitation such as resistance and genetic mutation along with adverse effects, constrained the long-term treatment and effectiveness of such medication. Therefore, in recent years, pyrimidine derivatives were uncovered as potential EGFR TKIs. The present review summarised the research progress of EGFR TKIs to dazed structure-activity relationship, biological evaluation, and comparative docking studies of pyrimidine compounds. We have added the comparative docking analysis followed by the molecular simulation study against the four different PDBs of EGFR to strengthen the already existing research. Docking analysis unfolded that compound 14 resulted as noticeable with all different PDB and managed to interact with some of the crucial amino acid residues. From a future perspective, researchers must develop a more selective inhibitor, that can selectively target the mutation. Our review will support medicinal chemists in the direction of the development of novel pyrimidine-based EGFR TKIs.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Design and synthesis of novel 2-(2-(4-bromophenyl)quinolin-4-yl)-1,3,4-oxadiazole derivatives as anticancer and antimicrobial candidates: in vitro and in silico studies

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, surpassed only by heart disease. Moreover, bacterial infections remain a significant global health burden, contributing substantially to morbidity and mortality, especially among hospitalized patients. EGFR has emerged as a prime therapeutic target due to its pivotal role in driving uncontrolled cell growth and survival across numerous cancer types. In addition, DNA gyrase represents a promising target for the development of novel antimicrobial agents. Therefore, we aimed to design and synthesize new multi-target quinoline hybrids (7-17e) capable of acting as anti-proliferative and antimicrobial agents by inhibiting EGFR and microbial DNA gyrase, respectively. The inhibitory potential of the synthesized compounds was determined using in vitro and in silico approaches. The antiproliferative activity of the synthesized quinoline-oxadiazole derivatives 7-17e was assessed against two cancer cell lines, namely, hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) and breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7). The assessed compounds 7-17e showed considerable cytotoxic activity activities against HepG2 and MCF-7 with IC50 values of 0.137-0.332 and 0.164-0.583 μg mL-1, respectively, in comparison to erlotinib as the positive control, which showed an IC50 value of 0.308 and 0.512 μg mL-1, respectively. Moreover, an EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibition assay was conducted on the most prominent candidates. The results showed good IC50 values of 0.14 and 0.18 μM for compounds 8c and 12d, respectively, compared to lapatinib (IC50 value of 0.12 μM). Furthermore, the minimum antimicrobial inhibitory concentration was evaluated for the most prominent candidates with S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans. Compounds 17b, 17d and 17e displayed the most potent inhibitory activity, exhibiting 4-, 16- and 8-fold more activity, respectively, than the reference neomycin. Hence, we can conclude that the afforded compounds can be used as lead dual anticancer and antimicrobial candidates for future optimization.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 2,4-dimorpholinopyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives as orally bioavailable PI3K inhibitors

Introduction

Phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K) is overexpressed in many tumors and is, thus, an ideal target for cancer treatments. Accordingly, there is an urgent need for the development of PI3K inhibitors with high potency and low toxicity.

Methods

In this study, we designed and synthesized a series of 2,4-dimorpholinopyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives, which were evaluated for their PI3K inhibitory potency.

Results and discussion

Compound 17p demonstrated comparable PI3Kα inhibitory activity (IC50: 31.8 ± 4.1 nM) to the positive control, BKM-120 (IC50: 44.6 ± 3.6 nM). In addition, 17p showed significant inhibitory activity against PI3Kδ (IC50: 15.4 ± 1.9 nM) and significant isoform selectivity against PI3Kβ, PI3Kγ, and mTOR. Furthermore, 17p exhibited good antiproliferative activities against cancer cell activity and good safety in the Ames and hERG tests while having outstanding liver microsomal stability in vitro, with half-lives of 38.5 min in rats and 127.9 min in humans. In addition, in an apoptosis assay, 17p could induce dose-dependent cytotoxicity in the ovarian cancer cell line A2780. In a pharmacokinetic study, 17p was stable (T ½: 2.03 h) and showed high bioavailability (46.2%). Collectively, these results indicate that 17p could be a promising PI3K agent for cancer treatment.

A novel class of potent antiangiogenic and antioxidant pyrazoles: synthesis, bioactivity, docking and ADMET studies

Aim: Angiogenesis is the hallmark of cancer progression driven by VEGF/VEGFR-2 signalling pathway, inhibition of which could be a solution to tackle the progression of tumour cells and thus arresting their growth.Materials & methods: A novel class of pyrazoles was synthesized using arginine and dibromo ketones. Antiangiogenic activity was performed by in vivo yolk sac method. Antioxidant activity was evaluated by hydroxyl and superoxide radical scavenging assays. Docking studies were performed to determine the pyrazoles' binding potential with VEGFR-2 receptor and VEGF tyrosine kinase. ADMET properties were calculated using SwissADME and admetSAR for drug-likeness.Results: Compounds 5a-e showed significant antiangiogenic effects. Compound 5f exhibited effective hydroxyl and superoxide radical scavenging activities. Docking results confirmed the potential binding efficiency with VEGFR-2 receptor over VEGF tyrosine kinase, thus, functioning as competitive-inhibitors. ADMET studies revealed that the compounds possess favourable drug-like qualities.Conclusion: This study presents a novel class of pyrazoles as promising antioxidant and antiangiogenic agents with favourable drug-likeness properties.

One-Pot Sustainable Synthesis of Highly Substituted Pyrimidines via Acceptorless Dehydrogenative Annulation of Alcohols Using Pincer Ni(II)-NNS Catalysts

We report an efficient and sustainable synthesis of highly substituted pyrimidines promoted by nickel(II)-NNS pincer-type complexes via acceptorless dehydrogenative annulations of readily available alcohols, malononitrile, and guanidine/benzamidine salt under eco-friendly conditions for the first time. Different sets of Ni(II) complexes (C1-C3) encapsulated in NNS pincer-type thiosemicarbazone ligands have been synthesized and authenticated by analytical and spectroscopic (Fourier transform infrared, nuclear magnetic resonance, and high-resolution mass spectrometry) techniques. The solid state three-dimensional structure of a representative complex (C2) has been determined with the aid of single crystal XRD analysis and confirms a square planar architecture around the nickel ion. Further, the well-defined Ni(II) complexes have been employed as efficient catalysts for the fabrication of a wide range of 4-aminopyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives (33 examples) from readily available alcohols with suitable coupling partners such as malononitrile and guanidine/benzamidine under eco-friendly conditions. The current catalytic approach affords maximum yields up to 95% utilizing 3 mol % catalyst loading and water/hydrogen as the only byproduct. A feasible catalytic pathway has been proposed based on the different control experiment reactions, which clearly indicate that the coupling reaction proceeds via aldehyde and benzylidenemalononitrile intermediates. The practicability of the current protocol has been demonstrated by the large-scale synthesis of one of the products, 4-amino-2,6-diphenylpyrimidine-5-carbonitrile, and a short synthesis of a cytosine antifungal analogue.

Novel 2-[thio]acetamide linked quinazoline/1,2,4-triazole/chalcone hybrids: Design, synthesis, and anticancer activity as EGFR inhibitors and apoptotic inducers

Novel triazoloquinazolines carrying the 2-[thio]acetamide entity (4 and 5a-d) and triazoloquinazoline/chalcone hybrids incorporating the 2-[thio]acetamide linker (8a-b and 9a-f) were developed as anticancer candidates. NCI screening of the synthesized compounds at 10 μM concentration displayed growth inhibition not only up to 99.74% as observed for 9a but also a lethal effect could be achieved as stated for compounds 9c (RPMI-8226 and HCT-116) and 8b, 9a, and 9e on the HCT-116 cell line. The antiproliferative activity was determined for the chalcone series on three cell lines: RPMI-8226, HCT-116, and MCF-7. Compounds 8b, 9a, 9b, and 9f were the most active ones. To understand the mechanistic study, the inhibitory effect on the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) kinase was evaluated. The results stated that the activity of compound 8b (IC50 = 0.07 μM) was near that of the reference drug erlotinib (IC50 = 0.052 μM) whereas compound 9b (IC50 = 0.045 μM) was found to be more potent than erlotinib. Both compounds 8b and 9b were selected for cell cycle analysis and apoptotic assays. Moreover, molecular docking results of the selected chalcone hybrids showed high binding scores and good binding affinities especially for 8b and 9b, which were consistent with the biological activity (EGFR).

Harnessing molecular hybridization approach to discover novel quinoline EGFR-TK inhibitors for cancer treatment

Aim: Using molecular hybridization approach, novel 18 quinoline derivatives (6a-11) were designed and synthesized as EGFR-TK inhibitors. Materials & methods: The antiproliferative activity was assessed against breast (MCF-7), leukemia (HL-60) and lung (A549) cancer cell lines. Moreover, the most active quinoline derivatives (6d and 8b) were further investigated for their potential as EGFR-TK inhibitors. In addition, cell cycle analysis and apoptosis induction activity were conducted. Results: A considerable cytotoxic activity was attained with IC50 values spanning from 0.06 to 1.12 μM. Besides, the quinoline derivatives 6d and 8b displayed potent inhibitory activity against EFGR with IC50 values of 0.18 and 0.08 μM, respectively. Conclusion: Accordingly, the afforded quinoline derivatives can be used as promising lead anticancer candidates for future optimization.

Novel Pyrimidine-5-Carbonitriles as potential apoptotic and antiproliferative agents by dual inhibition of EGFRWT/T790M and PI3k enzymes; Design, Synthesis, biological Evaluation, and docking studies

A new series of 6-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-(methylthio) pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives were designed and synthesized as EGFR/PI3K dual inhibitors, and potential antiproliferative agents. The new 22 compounds were screened by DTP-NCI against all NCI60 cell lines. Almost all compounds showed cytotoxic activity. Compound 7c showed a promising antitumour activity on CNS cancer (SNB-75), and ovarian cancer (OVAR-4) with IC50 < 0.01, and 0.64 µM, respectively. Fortunately, 7c exhibited a better safety profile on normal cells (WI-38) than doxorubicin by 2.2-fold. Compound 7c displayed selective inhibitory activity on EGFRt790m over EGFRWT with IC50 = 0.08, and 0.13 µM, respectively, wherefore it might overcome EGFR-TKIs resistance. In addition to its remarkable inhibitory activity on all PI3K isoforms, specifically PI3K-δ with IC50 = 0.64 µM Compared with LY294002 IC50 = 7.6 µM. Compound 7c arrested the cell cycle of SNB-75 & OVAR-4 at the G0-G1 phase coupled with apoptosis induction. The western blotting analysis approved decreasing the expression level of p-AKT coupled with an increase in Casp3, Casp9, and BAX proteins in the SNB-75 & OVAR-4 after being treated with 7c which may support the suggested mechanism of action of 7c as EGFR/PI3K dual inhibitor. Physicochemical parameters were forecasted using SwissADME online tool. MD showed the interaction of 7c with the crucial amino acids of the active domain of both EGFR/PI3K which may explain its potent inhibitory activities. In vivo study disclosed a significant decrease in tumor weight and the number of nodules in the group of mice treated with 7c compared with the control group.

Multi-target rational design and synthesis of novel diphenyl-tethered pyrazolopyrimidines targeting EGFR and topoisomerase II with potential DNA intercalation and apoptosis induction

Herein, we envisioned the design and synthesis of novel pyrazolopyrimidines (confirmed by elemental analysis, 1H and 13C NMR, and mass spectra) as multitarget-directed drug candidates acting as EGFR/TOPO II inhibitors, DNA intercalators, and apoptosis inducers. The target diphenyl-tethered pyrazolopyrimidines were synthesized starting from the reaction of phenyl hydrazine and ethoxymethylenemalononitrile to give aminopyrazole-carbonitrile 2. The latter hydrolysis with NaOH and subsequent reaction with 4-chlorobenzaldhyde afforded the corresponding pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-4-ol 4. Chlorination of 4 with POCl3 and sequential reaction with different amines afforded the target compounds in good yields (up to 73 %). The growth inhibition % of the new derivatives (6a-m) was investigated against different cancer and normal cells and the IC50 values of the most promising candidates were estimated for HNO97, MDA-MB-468, FaDu, and HeLa cancer cells. The frontier derivatives (6a, 6i, 6k, 6l, and 6m) were pursued for their EGFR inhibitory activity. Compound 6l decreased EGFR protein concentration by a 6.10-fold change, compared to imatinib as a reference standard. On the other side, compounds (6a, 6i, 6k, 6l, and 6m) underwent topoisomerase II (TOPO II) inhibitory assay. In particular, compounds 6a and 6l exhibited IC50s of 17.89 and 19.39 μM, respectively, surpassing etoposide with IC50 of 20.82 μM. Besides, the DNA fragmentation images described the great potential of both candidates 6a and 6l in inducing DNA degradation at lower concentrations compared to etoposide and doxorubicin. Moreover, compound 6l, with the most promising EGFR/TOPO II inhibition and DNA intercalation, was selected for further investigation for its apoptosis induction ability by measuring caspases 3, 7, 8, and 9, Bax, p53, MMP2, MMP9, and BCL-2 proteins. Additionally, molecular docking was used to explain the SAR results based on the differences in the molecular features of the investigated congeners and the target receptors' topology.

Anticancer evaluations of iodoquinazoline substituted with allyl and/or benzyl as dual inhibitors of EGFRWT and EGFRT790M: design, synthesis, ADMET and molecular docking

Fifteen new iodoquinazoline derivatives, 5a,b to 18, are reported in this study and their anticancer evaluation as dual inhibitors of EGFRWT and EGFRT790M. The new derivatives were designed according to the target of structural requirements of receptors. Cytotoxicity of our compounds was evaluated against MCF-7, A549, HCT116 and HepG2 cell lines using MTT assay. Compounds 18, 17 and 14b showed the highest anticancer effects with IC50 = 5.25, 6.46, 5.68 and 5.24 μM, 5.55, 6.85, 5.40 and 5.11 μM and 5.86, 7.03, 6.15 and 5.77 μM against HepG2, MCF-7, HCT116 and A549 cell lines, respectively. The eight highly effective compounds 10, 13, 14a, 14b, 15, 16, 17 and 18 were inspected against VERO normal cell lines to evaluate their cytotoxicity. Our conclusion was that compounds 10, 13, 14a, 14b, 15, 16, 17 and 18 possessed low toxicity against VERO normal cells with IC50 increasing from 43.44 to 52.11 μM. All compounds were additionally assessed for their EGFRWT and EGFRT790M inhibitory activities. Additionally, their ability to bind with EGFRWT and EGFR receptors was confirmed by molecular docking. Compound 17 exhibited the same inhibitory activity as erlotinib. Compounds 10, 13, 14b, 16 and 18 excellently inhibited VEGFR-2 activity with IC50 ranging from 0.17 to 0.50 μM. Moreover, compounds 18, 17, 14b and 16 remarkably inhibited EGFRT790M activity with IC50 = 0.25, 0.30, 0.36 and 0.40 μM respectively. As planned, compounds 18, 17 and 14b showed excellent dual EGFRWT/EGFRT790M inhibitory activities. Finally, our compounds 18, 17 and 14b displayed good in silico ADMET calculated profiles.

Computer aided drug discovery (CADD) of a thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivative as a new EGFR inhibitor targeting the ribose pocket

Depending on the pharmacophoric characteristics of EGFR inhibitors, a new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivative has been developed. Firstly, the potential inhibitory effect of the designed compound against EGFR has been proven by docking experiments that showed correct binding modes and excellent binding energies of -98.44 and -88.00 kcal/mol, against EGFR wild-type and mutant type, respectively. Furthermore, MD simulations studies confirmed the precise energetic, conformational, and dynamic alterations that occurred after binding to EGFR. The correct binding was also confirmed by essential dynamics studies. To further investigate the general drug-like properties of the developed candidate, in silico ADME and toxicity studies have also been carried out. The thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivative was synthesized following the earlier promising findings. Fascinatingly, the synthesized compound (4) showed promising inhibitory effects against EGFRWT and EGFRT790M with IC50 values of 25.8 and 182.3 nM, respectively. Also, it exhibited anticancer potentialities against A549 and MCF-7cell lines with IC50 values of 13.06 and 20.13 µM, respectively. Interestingly, these strong activities were combined with selectivity indices of 2.8 and 1.8 against the two cancer cell lines, respectively. Further investigations indicated the ability of compound 4 to arrest the cancer cells' growth at the G2/M phase and to increase early and late apoptosis percentages from 2.52% and 2.80 to 17.99% and 16.72%, respectively. Additionally, it was observed that compound 4 markedly increased the levels of caspase-3 and caspase-9 by 4 and 3-fold compared to the control cells. Moreover, it up-regulated the level of BAX by 3-fold and down-regulated the level of Bcl-2 by 3-fold affording a BAX/Bcl-2 ratio of 9.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Role of heterocycles in inhibition of VEGFR-2 - a recent update (2019-2022)

The literature reveals that oncogenic protein kinase inhibition has been proved to be a successful anticancer approach. The vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) kinase plays an important role in angiogenesis and metastasis. VEGFR-2 has an upper hand in the angiogenesis process. Vascular endothelial growth factor activates VEGFR-2 which initiates tumor angiogenesis. In addition, VEGFRs are associated with numerous other diseases. Hence, inhibition of VEGFRs is an attractive approach for cancer treatment. In view of this, researchers designed and discovered small molecular heterocycle-based VEGFR-2 inhibitors and some of them have been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). However, these VEGFR-2 inhibitors pose adverse side effects such as cardiovascular problems, diarrhea, and renal function impairment. Research indicates that combination of certain pharmacophores exhibits excellent VEGFR inhibitory activity. In particular, combination of heterocycles paved the way to efficient VEGFR inhibitors. In this review, the research focusing on VEGFR inhibitory activity has been discussed along with the structure-activity relationship. In addition to emphasizing the most potent molecule among the set of designed molecules, structural features responsible for such an activity are described. This review may aid in designing potent VEGFR inhibitors.

Tetrahydrobenzothiophene derivatives ameliorate Mia PaCa-2 cell progression and induces apoptosis via inhibiting EGFR2 tyrosine kinase signal

A series of new thiophene analogues with acarbonitrile-basedmoiety were designed and synthesized via structural optimization. The conjugates were assessed for their in-vitro cytotoxic activity against a human pancreatic cancer cell line (Mia PaCa-2) and among them compound 5b showed IC50 value of 13.37 ± 2.37 μM. The compounds 5b (20 µM & 25 µM) and 7c (30 & 35 µM) also showed reduced clonogenicity, enhanced ROS and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential in Mia PaCa-2 cells. Treatment with these compounds also increased apoptotic population as evident with the double staining assay. Among the evaluated series, compounds 5b, 5g, 7c, and 9a attained a greater inhibitory potency than first generation's reversible EGFR inhibitor, Gefitinib. EGFR2 enzyme inhibitory studies revealed that 5b efficiently and arbitrarily suppressed the development of EGFR2 dependent cells and inhibited the enzymatic activity with an IC50 value of 0.68 µM; interestingly, the most effective molecule 5b with N-methyl piperazine substitution, has 1.29-fold greater potency than well-known EGFR inhibitor Gefitinib and increased Gefitinib's anti-growth impact with 2.04 folds greater against Mia PaCa-2. The in-vitro studies were validated with in-silico docking studies wherein compounds 5b and 7c exhibited binding energies of -8.2 and -7.4 Kcal/mol respectively. The present study reveals that tetrahydrobenzothiophene based analogues could be a promising lead for the evolution of potent chemo preventives over pancreatic cancer.

Discovery of new thiazolidine-2,4-dione derivatives as potential VEGFR-2 inhibitors: In vitro and in silico studies

In this study, a series of seven novel 2,4-dioxothiazolidine derivatives with potential anticancer and VEGFR-2 inhibiting abilities were designed and synthesized as VEGFR-2 inhibitors. The synthesized compounds were tested in vitro for their potential to inhibit VEGFR-2 and the growth of HepG2 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines. Among the compounds tested, compound 22 (IC50 = 0.079 μM) demonstrated the highest anti-VEGFR-2 efficacy. Furthermore, it demonstrated significant anti-proliferative activities against HepG2 (IC50 = 2.04 ± 0.06 μM) and MCF-7 (IC50 = 1.21 ± 0.04 M). Additionally, compound 22 also increased the total apoptotic rate of the MCF-7 cancer cell lines with cell cycle arrest at S phase. As well, computational methods were applied to study the VEGFR-2-22 complex at the molecular level. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were used to investigate the complex's structural and kinetic characteristics. The DFT calculations further revealed the structural and electronic properties of compound 22. Finally, computational ADMET and toxicity tests were performed indicating the likeness of the proposed compounds to be drugs. The results suggest that compound 22 displays promise as an effective anticancer treatment and can serve as a model for future structural modifications and biological investigations in this field.

Chitosan-loaded piperlongumine nanoparticles and kaempferol enhance the anti-cancer action of doxorubicin in targeting of Ehrlich solid adenocarcinoma: in vivo and in silico modeling study

Doxorubicin is a chemotherapeutic drug that generates free radical-induced toxicities. Natural agents are used to potentiate or ameliorate the toxicity of chemotherapy. None of the studies investigating whether antioxidants or prooxidants should be used with chemotherapy have addressed their efficacy in the same study. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the potential synergy between doxorubicin and two natural rarely in vivo studied anticancer agents; the antioxidant "Kaempferol" and prooxidant "Piperlongumine" in Ehrlich tumor mice model. 77 albino mice were divided into 11 groups; Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells were injected intramuscularly to develop solid tumors. After 14 days, intratumoral injections of single or combinations of free or Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin, Piperlongumine, and Kaempferol were performed. Tumor Characterization of nanoparticles was measured, tumors were histopathologically examined and evaluation of expression for cancer-related genes by real-time PCR. In silico molecular docking was performed to uncover potential novel targets for Piperlongumine and Kaempferol. Despite receiving half of the overall dose compared to the free drugs, the combined doxorubicin/ piperlongumine-chitosan nanoparticles treatment was the most efficient in reducing tumor volume; down-regulating Cyclin D1, and BCL2; as well as the Beclin-1, and Cyclophilin A genes modulating growth, apoptosis, autophagy, and metastasis, respectively; up-regulating the Glutathione peroxidase expression as a defense mechanism protecting from oxidative damage. When combined with doxorubicin, Kaempferol and Piperlongumine were effective against Ehrlich solid tumors. However, the combination with the Piperlongumine-loaded chitosan nanoparticles significantly enhanced its anticancer effect compared to the Kaempferol or the same free compounds.

Tetrazolopyrimidine-tethered phenothiazine molecular hybrids: synthesis, biological and molecular docking studies

Molecular hybrids integrating phenothiazine and tetrazolopyrimidine structural motifs were designed, synthesized through a one-pot multi-component reaction and, evaluated for their radical scavenging, cytotoxicity and molecular docking studies.

Evaluation of anticancer potential of tetracene-5,12-dione (A01) and pyrimidine-2,4-dione (A02) via caspase 3 and lactate dehydrogenase cytotoxicity investigations

Cancer stands as a significant global cause of mortality, predominantly arising from the dysregulation of key enzymes and DNA. One strategic avenue in developing new anticancer agents involves targeting specific proteins within the cancer pathway. Amidst ongoing efforts to enhance the efficacy of anticancer drugs, a range of crucial medications currently interact with DNA at the molecular level, exerting profound biological effects. Our study is driven by the objective to comprehensively explore the potential of two compounds: (7S,9S)-7-[(2R,4S,5S,6S)-4-amino-5-hydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy-6,9,11-trihydroxy-9-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-4-methoxy-8,10-dihydro-7H-tetracene-5,12-dione (A01) and 5-fluoro-1H-pyrimidine-2,4-dione (A02). These compounds have demonstrated marked efficacy against breast and cervical cancer cell lines, positioning them as promising anticancer candidates. In our investigation, A01 has emerged as a particularly potent candidate, with its potential bolstered by corroborative evidence from lactate dehydrogenase release and caspase-3 activity assays. On the other hand, A02 has exhibited remarkable anticancer potential. To further elucidate their molecular mechanisms and interactions, we employed computational techniques, including molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations. Notably, our computational analyses suggest that the A01-DNA complex predominantly interacts via the minor groove, imparting significant insights into its mechanism of action. While earlier studies have also highlighted the anticancer activity of A01, our research contributes by providing a deeper understanding of its binding mechanisms through computational investigations. This knowledge holds potential for designing more effective drugs that target cancer-associated proteins. These findings lay a robust groundwork for future inquiries and propose that derivatives of A01 could be synthesized as potent bioactive agents for cancer treatment. By elucidating the distinctive aspects of our study's outcomes, we address the concern of distinguishing our findings from those of prior research.

Rationale design and synthesis of new apoptotic thiadiazole derivatives targeting VEGFR-2: computational and in vitro studies

This work presents the synthesis and in vitro, and in silico analyses of new thiadiazole derivatives that are designed to mimic the pharmacophoric characteristics of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) inhibitors. A comprehensive evaluation of the inhibitory properties of the synthesized thiadiazole derivatives against the cancer cell lines MCF-7 and HepG2 identified several auspicious candidates. Among them, compound 14 showed remarkably low IC50 values of 0.04 μM and 0.18 μM against MCF-7 and HepG2, respectively. VEGFR-2 inhibitory evaluation of compound 14 revealed a promising IC50 value in the nanomolar range (103 nM). Further examination of the cell cycle revealed that compound 14 has the ability to stop the progression of the cell cycle in MCF-7 cells via G0-G1 phase arrest. Interestingly, compound 14 also demonstrated a noteworthy pro-apoptotic effect in MCF-7 cells, with notable increases in early apoptosis (16.53%) and late apoptosis (29.57%), along with a slight increase in the population of necrotic cells (5.95%). Furthermore, compound 14 showed a significant drop in MCF-7 cells' ability to migrate and heal wounds. Additionally, compound 14 promoted apoptosis by boosting BAX (6-fold) while lowering Bcl-2 (6.2-fold). The binding affinities of the synthesized candidates to their target (VEGFR-2) were confirmed by computational investigations, including molecular docking, principal component analysis of trajectories (PCAT), and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Additionally, compound 14's stability and reactivity were investigated using density functional theory (DFT). These thorough results highlight compound 14's potential as a lead contender for additional research in the creation of anticancer drugs that target VEGFR-2. This work establishes a foundation for promising thiadiazole derivatives for future therapeutic developments in anticancer- and angiogenesis-related scientific fields.

Recruitment of hexahydroquinoline as anticancer scaffold targeting inhibition of wild and mutants EGFR (EGFRWT, EGFRT790M, and EGFRL858R)

Hexahydroquinoline (HHQ) scaffold was constructed and recruited for development of new series of anticancer agents. Thirty-two new compounds were synthesised where x-ray crystallography was performed to confirm enantiomerism. Thirteen compounds showed moderate to good activity against NCI 60 cancer cell lines, with GI % mean up to 74% for 10c. Expending erlotinib as a reference drug, target compounds were verified for their inhibiting activities against EGFRWT, EGFRT790M, and EGFRL858R where compound 10d was the best inhibitor with IC50 = 0.097, 0.280, and 0.051 µM, respectively, compared to erlotinib (IC50 = 0.082 µM, 0.342 µM, and 0.055 µM, respectively). Safety profile was validated using normal human lung (IMR-90) cells. 10c and 10d disrupted cell cycle at pre-G1 and G2/M phases in lung cancer, HOP-92, and cell line. Molecular docking study was achieved to understand the potential binding interactions and affinities in the active sites of three versions of EGFRs.

Design, synthesis, in vitro and in silico evaluation of novel substituted 1,2,4-triazole analogues as dual human VEGFR-2 and TB-InhA inhibitors

Cancer is a leading cause of death globally and has been associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). The angiogenesis-related VEGFR-2 is a common target between cancer and Mtb. Here, we aimed to synthesize and validate potent dual human VEGFR-2 inhibitors as anticancer and anti-mycobacterial agents. Two series of 1,2,4-triazole-based compounds (6a-l and 11a-e) were designed and synthesized through a molecular hybridization approach. Activities of all synthesized compounds were evaluated against human VEGFR-2 in addition to drug-sensitive, multidrug-resistant and extensive-drug resistant Mtb. Compounds 6a, 6c, 6e, 6f, 6h, 6l, 11a, 11d and 11e showed promising inhibitory effect on VEGFR-2 (IC50 = 0.15 - 0.39 µM), anti-proliferative activities against cancerous cells and low cytotoxicity against normal cells. The most potent compounds (6e and 11a) increased apoptosis percentage. Additionally, compounds 6h, 6i, 6l and 11c showed the highest activities against all Mtb strains, and thus were evaluated against enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (InhA) which is essential for Mtb cell wall synthesis. Interestingly, the compounds showed excellent InhA inhibition activities with IC50 range of 1.3 - 4.7 µM. Docking study revealed high binding affinities toward targeted enzymes; human VEGFR-2 and Mtb InhA. In conclusion, 1,2,4-triazole analogues are suggested as potent anticancer and antimycobacterial agents via inhibition of human VEGFR-2 and Mtb InhA.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of new pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives as novel anti-cancer, dual EGFRWT/COX-2 inhibitors with docking studies

A novel series of pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives was designed, synthesized, then evaluated for their cytotoxic activity as novel anti-cancer with dual EGFRWT/COX-2 inhibitors. Two compounds 4e and 4f disclosed the highest activity against all NCI60 panel cell lines. They were most potent against Colo 205 (IC50 = 1.66, and 1.83 μM), Sequentially. The most potent two compounds disturbed cell cycle of Colo-205 cells by blocking the G1 phase, coupled with increased annexin-Vstained cells which indicated the increasing in percentage of apoptosis. In addition, 4e and 4f increase the concentration of caspase-3 by 10, and 8-fold compared to control, respectively. Moreover, the two candidate compounds were screened for cytotoxicity on normal epithelial colon cells; fortunately, they were found to be safe. Molecular docking study displayed that these compounds bound to the active site as EGFRWT/COX-2 inhibitors. Furthermore, 3D pharmacophore mapping disclosed many shared features between the most potent candidates 4e and 4f and the standard EGFRWT/COX-2 inhibitors; erlotinib, and celecoxib, respectively. Finally, the physicochemical parameter was calculated for the most potent novel anticancer candidates and the SwissAdme parameter showed that the newly synthesized compounds have good drug-likeness properties.

Development of Novel Class of Phenylpyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-Based Analogs with Potent Anticancer Activity and Multitarget Enzyme Inhibition Supported by Docking Studies

Phenylpyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine is considered a milestone scaffold known to possess various biological activities such as antiparasitic, antifungal, antimicrobial, and antiproliferative activities. In addition, the urgent need for selective and potent novel anticancer agents represents a major route in the drug discovery process. Herein, new aryl analogs were synthesized and evaluated for their anticancer effects on a panel of cancer cell lines: MCF-7, HCT116, and HePG-2. Some of these compounds showed potent cytotoxicity, with variable degrees of potency and cell line selectivity in antiproliferative assays with low resistance. As the analogs carry the pyrazolopyrimidine scaffold, which looks structurally very similar to tyrosine and receptor kinase inhibitors, the potent compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on three essential cancer targets: EGFRWT, EGFRT790M, VGFR2, and Top-II. The data obtained revealed that most of these compounds were potent, with variable degrees of target selectivity and dual EGFR/VGFR2 inhibitors at the IC50 value range, i.e., 0.3-24 µM. Among these, compound 5i was the most potent non-selective dual EGFR/VGFR2 inhibitor, with inhibitory concentrations of 0.3 and 7.60 µM, respectively. When 5i was tested in an MCF-7 model, it effectively inhibited tumor growth, strongly induced cancer cell apoptosis, inhibited cell migration, and suppressed cell cycle progression leading to DNA fragmentation. Molecular docking studies were performed to explore the binding mode and mechanism of such compounds on protein targets and mapped with reference ligands. The results of our studies indicate that the newly discovered phenylpyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine-based multitarget inhibitors have significant potential for anticancer treatment.

Design and synthesis of novel pyrazolopyrimidine candidates as promising EGFR-T790M inhibitors and apoptosis inducers

Aim: Our objective was to design and synthesize a new range of pyrazolopyrimidines while maintaining the key pharmacophoric features of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Materials & methods: Percentage inhibition in 14 human cancer cell lines and IC50 values were recorded. Compounds 6c, 7e and 7f were examined against both wild and mutant (T790M) EGFR subtypes. Apoptosis markers, cell cycle arrest, apoptosis assay and molecular docking were performed. Results: Compounds 6c, 7e and 7f demonstrated superior inhibitory potentials against wild and mutant (T790M) EGFR subtypes. A molecular docking study showed that compounds 6c and 7e had the best fit. Conclusion: The designed candidates demonstrated superior inhibitory potential as promising EGFR-T790M inhibitors that agrees with the proposed rationale.

Novel promising benzoxazole/benzothiazole-derived immunomodulatory agents: Design, synthesis, anticancer evaluation, and in silico ADMET analysis

Eleven novel benzoxazole/benzothiazole-based thalidomide analogs were designed and synthesized to obtain new effective antitumor immunomodulatory agents. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against HepG-2, HCT-116, PC3, and MCF-7 cells. Generally, the open analogs with semicarbazide and thiosemicarbazide moieties (10, 13a-c, 14, and 17a,b) exhibited higher cytotoxic activities than derivatives with closed glutarimide moiety (8a-d). In particular, compound 13a (IC50  = 6.14, 5.79, 10.26, and 4.71 µM against HepG-2, HCT-116, PC3, and MCF-7, respectively) and 14 (IC50  = 7.93, 8.23, 12.37, and 5.43 µM, respectively) exhibited the highest anticancer activities against the four tested cell lines. The most active compounds 13a and 14 were further evaluated for their in vitro immunomodulatory activities on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), caspase-8 (CASP8), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and nuclear factor kappa-B p65 (NF-κB p65) in HCT-116 cells. Compounds 13a and 14 showed a remarkable and significant reduction in TNF-α. Furthermore, they showed significant elevation in CASP8 levels. Also, they significantly inhibited VEGF. In addition, compound 13a showed significant decreases in the level of NF-κB p65 while compound 14 demonstrated an insignificant decrease with respect to thalidomide. Moreover, our derivatives exhibited good in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, toxicity (ADMET) profiles.

Design, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of New Potential Unusual Modified Anticancer Immunomodulators for Possible Non-Teratogenic Quinazoline-Based Thalidomide Analogs

Sixteen new thalidomide analogs were synthesized. The new candidates showed potent in vitro antiproliferative activities against three human cancer cell lines, namely hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG-2), prostate cancer (PC3), and breast cancer (MCF-7). It was found that compounds XII, XIIIa, XIIIb, XIIIc, XIIId, XIVa, XIVb, and XIVc showed IC50 values ranging from 2.03 to 13.39 µg/mL, exhibiting higher activities than thalidomide against all tested cancer cell lines. Compound XIIIa was the most potent candidate, with an IC50 of 2.03 ± 0.11, 2.51 ± 0.2, and 0.82 ± 0.02 µg/mL compared to 11.26 ± 0.54, 14.58 ± 0.57, and 16.87 ± 0.7 µg/mL for thalidomide against HepG-2, PC3, and MCF-7 cells, respectively. Furthermore, compound XIVc reduced the expression of NFκB P65 levels in HepG-2 cells from 278.1 pg/mL to 63.1 pg/mL compared to 110.5 pg/mL for thalidomide. Moreover, compound XIVc induced an eightfold increase in caspase-8 levels with a simultaneous decrease in TNF-α and VEGF levels in HepG-2 cells. Additionally, compound XIVc induced apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Our results reveal that the new candidates are potential anticancer candidates, particularly XIIIa and XIVc. Consequently, they should be considered for further evaluation for the development of new anticancer drugs.

Design, synthesis, in silico studies, and biological evaluation of novel pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives as potential anti-proliferative agents, VEGFR-2 inhibitors and apoptotic inducers

A novel series of pyrimidine-5-carbonitrile derivatives bearing benzylidene and hydrazone moieties with different linkers (spacers) were designed and synthesized as possible inhibitors of the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 (VEGFR-2). The newly synthesized compounds were evaluated in vitro for their cytotoxic activities against two human cancer cell lines namely colon cancer (HCT-116) and breast cancer (MCF-7) using sorafenib as a standard anticancer drug. Compounds 9d, 11e, 12b, and 12d showed higher cytotoxic activities than sorafenib with IC₅₀ values ranging from 1.14 to 10.33 μM. In particular, compound 11e exhibited excellent activities against HCT-116 and MCF-7 with IC₅₀ values of 1.14 and 1.54 μM, respectively. Moreover, compound 11e exhibited about 47.32-fold cytotoxic activity against normal human fibroblast (WI-38) cells, lower than the cytotoxicity against the cancer cells. Compounds 11e and 12b were the most potent VEGFR-2 inhibitors with IC₅₀ values of 0.61 and 0.53 μM, respectively, compared to sorafenib. Bedsides, compound 11e arrested the HCT-116 cell growth at S and sub-G1 phases, induced a significant increase in the apoptotic cells, and caused remarkable decrease in the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and caspase-3. Finally, the binding patterns of the target derivatives were investigated through the docking study against the proposed molecular target (VEGFR-2, PDB ID 1YWN). The results of molecular docking studies showed similar binding modes to sorafenib against VEGFR-2. In addition, molecular dynamic simulations revealed the stability of compound 11e in the active site for 100 ns.

Discovery of new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidines as EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors for cancer treatment

Background: EGFR has been considered a vital molecular target in cancer management. Aim: The discovery of new thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives as EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Methods: Nine derivatives were designed, synthesized and subjected to in vitro and in silico studies. Results: Compound 7a significantly inhibited the growth of HepG2 and PC3 cells for both EGFR wild-type and EGFRT790M. Compound 7a caused a significant apoptotic effect, arresting HepG2 cells' growth in the S and G2/M phases. Docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies confirmed the correct and stable binding modes of the synthesized compounds against the active sites. Conclusion: Compound 7a is a promising dual EGFR inhibitor for cancer treatment.

Exploring anticancer properties of novel Nano-Formulation of BODIPY Compound, Photophysicochemical, in vitro and in silico evaluations

A new BODIPY complex (C4) composed of meso- thienyl-pyridine substituted core unit diiodinated from 2- and 6- positions and distyryl moieties at 3- and 5- positions is synthesized. Nano-sized formulation of C4 is prepared by single emulsion method using poly(ε-caprolactone)(PCL) polymer. Encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity values of C4 loaded PCL nanoparticles (C4@PCL-NPs) are calculated and in vitro release profile of C4 is determined. The cytotoxicity and anti-cancer activity are conducted on the L929 and MCF-7 cell lines. Cellular uptake study is performed and interaction between C4@PCL-NPs and MCF-7 cell line is investigated. Anti-cancer activity of C4 is predicted with molecular docking studies and the inhibition property on EGFR, ERα, PR and mTOR are investigated for its anticancer properties. Molecular interactions, binding positions and docking score energies between C4 and EGFR, ERα, PR and mTOR targets are revealed using in silico methods. The druglikeness and pharmacokinetic properties of C4 are evaluated using the SwissADME and its bioavailability and toxicity profiles are assessed using the SwissADME, preADMET and pkCSM servers. In conclusion, the potential use of C4 as an anti-cancer agent is evaluated in vitro and in silico methods. Also, photophysicochemical properties are studied to investigate the potential of using Photodynamic Therapy (PDT). In photochemical studies, the calculated singlet oxygen quantum yield (Φ_Δ) value was 0.73 for C4 and in photopysical studies, the calculated fluorescence quantum yield Φ_F value was 0.19 for C4.

In Silico Study of Thiourea Derivatives as Potential Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibitors

Over the years, the escalation of cancer cases has been linked to the resistance, less selectivity, and toxicity of available anticancer drugs to normal cells. Therefore, continuous efforts are necessary to find new anticancer drugs with high selectivity of epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase (EGFR-TK) as a therapeutic target. The EGFR-TK protein has a crucial role in cell proliferation and cancer progression. With about 30% of cancer cases involved with the protein, it has piqued the interest as a therapeutic target. The potential of theoretically designed thiourea derivatives as anticancer agents in this report was evaluated against EGFR-TK via in silico techniques, including molecular docking (AutoDock Vina), molecular dynamics simulations (GROMACS), pharmacokinetics, and drug-likeness properties (SwissADME and Molinspiration). New hybrid molecules of the thiourea derivative moiety were designed in this study based on the fragment-based drug discovery and linked with diverse pharmacophoric fragments with reported anticancer potential ([Formula: see text]) and the modification of the methyl position on phenyl ring ([Formula: see text]). These fragments include pyridine, thiophene, furan, pyrrole and styrene groups. Out of 15 compounds, compound 13 displayed the most potent inhibitory activity, with the lowest binding affinity in docking of [Formula: see text]8.7 kcal/mol compared to the positive control erlotinib of [Formula: see text]6.7 kcal/mol. Our molecular dynamics (MD) simulations revealed that molecule 13, comprising styrene and 2-methylphenyl substituents on [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text], respectively, showed adequate compactness, uniqueness and satisfactory stability. Subsequently, the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity (ADMET) properties and drug-likeness properties also indicate that this theoretically designed inhibitor ( 13) is less toxic and contains high druggable properties. Thus, compound 13 could be promising against EGFR-TK.

Anticancer Activities of Tetrasubstituted Imidazole-Pyrimidine-Sulfonamide Hybrids as Inhibitors of EGFR Mutants

A new series of tetrasubstituted imidazole derivatives carrying pyrimidine sulfonamide pharmacophores has been synthesized and evaluated for their anticancer activities. In-vitro screening of these hybrids against a full 60-cell-line panel at a single dose of 10 μM showed significant growth inhibition of up to 95 %. The most active compound showed in-vitro anticancer activities against (i) abnormal HER2 and (ii) two mutants for EGFR. Apoptotic gene expression revealed that lead compounds induced MCF-7 cell line apoptosis together with considerable change in the Bax/Bcl-2 expression ratio. One lead compound led to a significant cell-cycle S-phase arrest, while another blocked the cell cycle at G1/S-phase causing the accumulation of cells. Docking analysis of these two hybrids adopted the orientation and binding interactions with a higher liability to enter the active side pocket of HER2, L858R, and T790 M, preferable to that of co-crystallized ligands. Modelling simulation was consistent with the acquired biological evaluation.

A New Anticancer Semisynthetic Theobromine Derivative Targeting EGFR Protein: CADDD Study

A new lead compound has been designed as an antiangiogenic EGFR inhibitor that has the pharmacophoric characteristics to bind with the catalytic pocket of EGFR protein. The designed lead compound is a (para-chloro)acetamide derivative of the alkaloid, theobromine, (T-1-PCPA). At first, we started with deep density functional theory (DFT) calculations for T-1-PCPA to confirm and optimize its 3D structure. Additionally, the DFT studies identified the electrostatic potential, global reactive indices and total density of states expecting a high level of reactivity for T-1-PCPA. Secondly, the affinity of T-1-PCPA to bind and inhibit the EGFR protein was studied and confirmed through detailed structure-based computational studies including the molecular docking against EGFR^WT and EGFR^T790M, Molecular dynamics (MD) over 100 ns, MM-GPSA and PLIP experiments. Before the preparation, the computational ADME and toxicity profiles of T-1-PCPA have been investigated and its safety and the general drug-likeness predicted. Accordingly, T-1-PCPA was semi-synthesized to scrutinize the proposed design and the obtained in silico results. Interestingly, T-1-PCPA inhibited in vitro EGFR^WT with an IC₅₀ value of 25.35 nM, comparing that of erlotinib (5.90 nM). Additionally, T-1-PCPA inhibited the growth of A549 and HCT-116 malignant cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 31.74 and 20.40 µM, respectively, comparing erlotinib that expressed IC₅₀ values of 6.73 and 16.35 µM, respectively.

Anticancer derivative of the natural alkaloid, theobromine, inhibiting EGFR protein: Computer-aided drug discovery approach

A new semisynthetic derivative of the natural alkaloid, theobromine, has been designed as a lead antiangiogenic compound targeting the EGFR protein. The designed compound is an (m-tolyl)acetamide theobromine derivative, (T-1-MTA). Molecular Docking studies have shown a great potential for T-1-MTA to bind to EGFR. MD studies (100 ns) verified the proposed binding. By MM-GBSA analysis, the exact binding with optimal energy of T-1-MTA was also identified. Then, DFT calculations were performed to identify the stability, reactivity, electrostatic potential, and total electron density of T-1-MTA. Furthermore, ADMET analysis indicated the T-1-MTA's general likeness and safety. Accordingly, T-1-MTA has been synthesized to be examined in vitro. Intriguingly, T-1-MTA inhibited the EGFR protein with an IC50 value of 22.89 nM and demonstrated cytotoxic activities against the two cancer cell lines, A549, and HCT-116, with IC50 values of 22.49, and 24.97 μM, respectively. Interestingly, T-1-MTA's IC50 against the normal cell lines, WI-38, was very high (55.14 μM) indicating high selectivity degrees of 2.4 and 2.2, respectively. Furthermore, the flow cytometry analysis of A549 treated with T-1-MTA showed significantly increased ratios of early apoptosis (from 0.07% to 21.24%) as well as late apoptosis (from 0.73% to 37.97%).

Design, synthesis, and anti-cancer evaluation of new pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4(3H)-one derivatives as potential EGFRWT and EGFRT790M inhibitors and apoptosis inducers

A new series of pyrido[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4(3H)-one derivatives having the essential pharmacophoric features of EGFR inhibitors has been designed and synthesised. Cell viability screening was performed for these compounds against A-549, PC-3, HCT-116, and MCF-7 cell lines at a dose of 100 μM. The highest active derivatives (8a, 8 b, 8d, 9a, and 12b) were selected for IC₅₀ screening. Compounds 8a, 8 b, and 9a showed the highest cytotoxic activities and were further investigated for wild EGFR^WT and mutant EGFR^T790M inhibitory activities. Compound 8a showed the highest inhibitory activities against EGFR^WT and EGFR^T790M with IC₅₀ values of 0.099 and 0.123 µM, respectively. In addition, it arrested the cell cycle at pre-G1 phase and induced a significant apoptotic effect in PC-3 cells. Furthermore, compound 8a induced a 5.3-fold increase in the level of caspase-3 in PC-3 cells. Finally, docking studies were carried out to examine the binding mode of the synthesised compounds against both EGFR^WT and EGFR^T790M.

Design, synthesis and molecular docking of new fused 1H-pyrroles, pyrrolo[3,2-d]pyrimidines and pyrrolo[3,2-e][1, 4]diazepine derivatives as potent EGFR/CDK2 inhibitors

A new series of 1H-pyrrole (6a-c, 8a-c), pyrrolo[3,2-d]pyrimidines (9a-c) and pyrrolo[3,2-e][1, 4]diazepines (11a-c) were designed and synthesised. These compounds were designed to have the essential pharmacophoric features of EGFR Inhibitors, they have shown anticancer activities against HCT116, MCF-7 and Hep3B cancer cells with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.009 to 2.195 µM. IC₅₀ value of doxorubicin is 0.008 µM, compounds 9a and 9c showed IC₅₀ values of 0.011 and 0.009 µM respectively against HCT-116 cells. Compound 8b exerted broad-spectrum activity against all tested cell lines with an IC₅₀ value less than 0.05 µM. Compound 8b was evaluated against a panel of kinases. This compound potently inhibited CDK2/Cyclin A1, DYRK3 and GSK3 alpha kinases with 10-23% compared to imatinib (1-10%). It has also arrested the cell cycle of MCF-7 cells at the S phase. Its antiproliferative activity was further augmented by molecular docking into the active sites of EGFR and CDK2 cyclin A1.

Discovery of new symmetrical and asymmetrical nitrile-containing 1,4-dihydropyridine derivatives as dual kinases and P-glycoprotein inhibitors: synthesis, in vitro assays, and in silico studies

Two new series of symmetric (1a-h) and asymmetric (2a-l) 1,4-DHP derivatives were designed, synthesised, and evaluated as anticancer agents. In vitro anticancer screening of target compounds via National cancer institute “NCI” revealed that analogues 1g, 2e, and 2l demonstrated antiproliferative action with mean growth inhibition percentage “GI%” = 41, 28, and 64, respectively. The reversal doxorubicin (DOX) effects of compounds 1g, 2e, and 2l were examined and illustrated better cytotoxic activity with IC₅₀ =1.12, 3.64, and 3.57 µM, respectively. The most active anticancer analogues, 1g, 2e, and 2l, were inspected for their putative mechanism of action by estimating their epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER-2), and Bruton’s tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitory activities. Furthermore, the antimicrobial activity of target compounds was assessed against six different pathogens, followed by determining the minimum inhibitory concentration “MIC” values for the most active analogues. Molecular docking study was achieved to understand mode of interactions between selected inhibitors and different biological targets.

New benzoxazole derivatives as potential VEGFR-2 inhibitors and apoptosis inducers: design, synthesis, anti-proliferative evaluation, flowcytometric analysis, and in silico studies

A new series of benzoxazole derivatives were designed and synthesised to have the main essential pharmacophoric features of VEGFR-2 inhibitors. Cytotoxic activities were evaluated for all derivatives against two human cancer cell lines, MCF-7 and HepG2. Also, the effect of the most cytotoxic derivatives on VEGFR-2 protein concentration was assessed by ELISA. Compounds 14o, 14l, and 14b showed the highest activities with VEGFR-2 protein concentrations of 586.3, 636.2, and 705.7 pg/ml, respectively. Additionally, the anti-angiogenic property of compound 14b against human umbilical vascular endothelial cell (HUVEC) was performed using a wound healing migration assay. Compound 14b reduced proliferation and migratory potential of HUVEC cells. Furthermore, compound 14b was subjected to further biological investigations including cell cycle and apoptosis analyses. Compound 14b arrested the HepG2 cell growth at the Pre-G1 phase and induced apoptosis by 16.52%, compared to 0.67% in the control (HepG2) cells. The effect of apoptosis was buttressed by a 4.8-fold increase in caspase-3 level compared to the control cells. Besides, different in silico docking studies were also performed to get better insights into the possible binding mode of the target compounds with VEGFR-2 active sites.

1,3,4-Oxadiazole-naphthalene hybrids as potential VEGFR-2 inhibitors: design, synthesis, antiproliferative activity, apoptotic effect, and in silico studies

In the current work, some 1,3,4-oxadiazole-naphthalene hybrids were designed and synthesised as VEGFR-2 inhibitors. The synthesised compounds were evaluated in vitro for their antiproliferative activity against two human cancer cell lines namely, HepG-2 and MCF-7. Compounds that exhibited promising cytotoxicity (5, 8, 15, 16, 17, and 18) were further evaluated for their VEGFR-2 inhibitory activities. Compound 5 showed good antiproliferative activity against both cell lines and inhibitory effect on VEGFR-2. Besides, it induced apoptosis by 22.86% compared to 0.51% in the control (HepG2) cells. This apoptotic effect was supported by a 5.61-fold increase in the level of caspase-3 compared to the control cells. Moreover, it arrested the HepG2 cell growth mostly at the Pre-G1 phase. Several in silico studies were performed including docking, ADMET, and toxicity studies to predict binding mode against VEGFR-2 and to anticipate pharmacokinetic, drug-likeness, and toxicity of the synthesised compounds.

New Anticancer Theobromine Derivative Targeting EGFRWT and EGFRT790M: Design, Semi-Synthesis, In Silico, and In Vitro Anticancer Studies

Based on the pharmacophoric features of EGFR inhibitors, a new semisynthetic theobromine-derived compound was designed to interact with the catalytic pocket of EGFR. Molecular docking against wild (EGFR^WT; PDB: 4HJO) and mutant (EGFR^T790M; PDB: 3W2O) types of EGFR-TK indicated that the designed theobromine derivative had the potential to bind to that pocket as an antiangiogenic inhibitor. The MD and MM-GBSA experiments identified the exact binding with optimum energy and dynamics. Additionally, the DFT calculations studied electrostatic potential, stability, and total electron density of the designed theobromine derivative. Both in silico ADMET and toxicity analyses demonstrated its general likeness and safety. We synthesized the designed theobromine derivative (compound XI) which showed an IC₅₀ value of 17.23 nM for EGFR inhibition besides IC₅₀ values of 21.99 and 22.02 µM for its cytotoxicity against A549 and HCT-116 cell lines, respectively. Interestingly, compound XI expressed a weak cytotoxic potential against the healthy W138 cell line (IC₅₀ = 49.44 µM, 1.6 times safer than erlotinib), exhibiting the high selectivity index of 2.2. Compound XI arrested the growth of A549 at the G2/M stage and increased the incidence of apoptosis.

A Multistage In Silico Study of Natural Potential Inhibitors Targeting SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease

Among a group of 310 natural antiviral natural metabolites, our team identified three compounds as the most potent natural inhibitors against the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (PDB ID: 5R84), Mpro. The identified compounds are sattazolin and caprolactin A and B. A validated multistage in silico study was conducted using several techniques. First, the molecular structures of the selected metabolites were compared with that of GWS, the co-crystallized ligand of Mpro, in a structural similarity study. The aim of this study was to determine the thirty most similar metabolites (10%) that may bind to the Mpro similar to GWS. Then, molecular docking against Mpro and pharmacophore studies led to the choice of five metabolites that exhibited good binding modes against the Mpro and good fit values against the generated pharmacophore model. Among them, three metabolites were chosen according to ADMET studies. The most promising Mpro inhibitor was determined by toxicity and DFT studies to be caprolactin A (292). Finally, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation studies were performed for caprolactin A to confirm the obtained results and understand the thermodynamic characteristics of the binding. It is hoped that the accomplished results could represent a positive step in the battle against COVID-19 through further in vitro and in vivo studies on the selected compounds.

Pyrimidine derivatives as EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors in NSCLC: - A comprehensive review

EGFR positive NSCLC due to primary mutation (EGFR DEL19 & L858R) has been recognized as a crucial mediator of tumor progression. This led to the development and approval of EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors which addresses EGFR mediated NSCLC but fail to show potency after initial months of therapy due to acquired resistance (EGFR T790M, EGFR C797S). Extensive research allowed identification of drugs for EGFR positive NSCLC, wherein the majority of compounds have a pyrimidine substructure offering marked therapeutic benefits compared to chemotherapy. This current review outlines the diverse pyrimidine derivatives with amino-linked and fused pyrimidine scaffolds such as furo-pyrimidine, pyrimido-pyrimidine, thieno-pyrimidine, highlighting pyrimidine EGFR TK inhibitors reported in research emphasizing structural aspects, design approaches, inhibition potential. selectivity profile towards mutant EGFR conveyed through biological evaluation studies. Furthermore, mentioning the in-silico interaction profile of synthesized compounds for evaluating the binding affinity with key amino acids. The epilogue of review focuses on the recent research that drives forward to aid in the discovery and development of substituted amino and fused scaffolds of pyrimidine that can counteract the mutations and effectively manage EGFR positive NSCLC.

Molecular docking of the pentapeptide derived from rice bran protein as anticancer agent inhibiting both receptor and non-receptor tyrosine kinases

The cationic pentapeptide Glu-Gln-Arg-Pro-Arg (EQRPR) belongs to the family of anti-cancer peptides with significant anti-cancer activity. However, the mechanism by which the peptide performs this activity is unknown. In this study, we explored the pharmaceutical profile of Glu-Gln-Arg-Pro-Arg pentapeptide and revealed its anticancer properties by in silico docking studies. Moreover, the effect of EQRPR behavior of the DPPC membrane was investigated by means of Langmuir monolayer technique and the results were discussed in terms of mutual interactions. To evaluate the binding mechanisms, the pentapeptide and its various D-amino acid substituted analogs were docked to both epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase and proto-oncogene tyrosine-protein kinase, Fyn. Simultaneous binding of the pentapeptides to both EGFR and Fyn proteins, which are receptor- and non-receptor-kinases, respectively, suggest that these peptides can be an effective agent for cancer treatment. Moreover, to show the potential of the investigated pentapeptides to overcome the generated mutation-related drug resistance to EGFR targeted therapies, molecular docking investigations of EQRPR and all its D-analogs were performed against the prospective targets: Wild type EGFR^WT and mutant EGFR^T790M. Erlotinib and TAK-285 were used as reference molecules. The strong interaction of the peptide with EGFR^WT (from -9.24 to -9.75 kcal/mol) and the secondary mutant EGFR^T790M (from -9.28 to -9.64 kcal/mol) observed in most cancer recurrence cases indicates its good potential to overcome drug resistance in cancer therapy. In addition, the pharmacological properties of the investigated pentapeptides were revealed by in silico ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion) and toxicity analysis.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.