A cautionary tale of basic azo photoswitching in dichloromethane finally explained

Many studies of azobenzene photoswitches are carried out in polar aprotic solvents as a first principles characterization of thermal isomerization. Among the most convenient polar aprotic solvents are chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as DCM. However, studies of azobenzene thermal isomerization in such solvents have led to spurious, inconclusive, and irreproducible results, even when scrupulously cleaned and dried, a phenomenon not well understood. We present the results of a comprehensive investigation into the root cause of this problem. We explain how irradiation of an azopyridine photoswitch with UV in DCM acts not just as a trigger for photoisomerization, but protonation of the pyridine moiety through photodecomposition of the solvent. Protonation markedly accelerates the thermal isomerization rate, and DFT calculations demonstrate that the singlet-triplet rotation mechanism assumed for many azo photoswitches is surprisingly abolished. This study implies exploitative advantages of photolytically-generated protons and finally explains the warning against using chlorinated solvent with UV irradiation in isomerization experiments.

Photochromic Ln-MOFs: A Platform for Metal-Photoswitch Cooperativity

Optoelectronic devices based on lanthanide-containing materials are an emergent area of research due to imminent interest in a new generation of diode materials, optical and magnetic sensors, and ratiometric thermometers. Tailoring material properties through the employment of photo- or thermochromic moieties is a powerful approach that requires a deep fundamental understanding of possible cooperativity between lanthanide-based metal centers and integrated switchable units. In this work, we probe this concept through the synthesis, structural analysis, and spectroscopic characterization of novel photochromic lanthanide-based metal-organic materials containing noncoordinatively integrated photoresponsive 4,4'-azopyridine between lanthanide-based metal centers. As a result, a photophysical material response tailored on demand through the incorporation of photochromic compounds within a rigid matrix was investigated. The comprehensive analysis of photoresponsive metal-organic materials includes single-crystal X-ray diffraction and diffuse reflectance spectroscopic studies that provide guiding principles necessary for understanding photochromic unit-lanthanide-based metal-organic framework (MOF) cooperativity. Furthermore, steady-state and time-resolved diffuse reflectance spectroscopic studies revealed a rapid rate of photoresponsive moiety attenuation upon its integration within the rigid matrix of lanthanide-based MOFs in comparison with that in solution, highlighting a unique role and synergy that occurred between stimuli-responsive moieties and the lanthanide-based MOF platform, allowing for tunability and control of material photoisomerization kinetics.

Azopyridinium Ionic Photoswitches: Tuning Half-Lives of Z Isomers from Seconds to Days in Water

Herein, we describe water-soluble heteroaryl azopyridinium ionic photoswitches (HAPIPs). We aim to combine variations in five-membered heterocycles, their substitutions, N-alkyl groups at pyridinium nitrogen, the position of pyridinium center relative to azo group, counterions, and solvents, in achieving better photoswitching. Through these studies, we successfully tuned the half-life of Z isomers of the resultant HAPIPs between seconds to days in water. Extensive spectroscopic studies and density functional theory (DFT) computations unravelled the factors responsible for thermal relaxation behavior. Considering the versatility of these photoswitches, the tunability of half-lives and photoswitching in aqueous medium allows the scope of applications in several fields.

Optical Phenomena in Molecule-Based Magnetic Materials

Since the last century, we have witnessed the development of molecular magnetism which deals with magnetic materials based on molecular species, i.e., organic radicals and metal complexes. Among them, the broadest attention was devoted to molecule-based ferro-/ferrimagnets, spin transition materials, including those exploring electron transfer, molecular nanomagnets, such as single-molecule magnets (SMMs), molecular qubits, and stimuli-responsive magnetic materials. Their physical properties open the application horizons in sensors, data storage, spintronics, and quantum computation. It was found that various optical phenomena, such as thermochromism, photoswitching of magnetic and optical characteristics, luminescence, nonlinear optical and chiroptical effects, as well as optical responsivity to external stimuli, can be implemented into molecule-based magnetic materials. Moreover, the fruitful interactions of these optical effects with magnetism in molecule-based materials can provide new physical cross-effects and multifunctionality, enriching the applications in optical, electronic, and magnetic devices. This Review aims to show the scope of optical phenomena generated in molecule-based magnetic materials, including the recent advances in such areas as high-temperature photomagnetism, optical thermometry utilizing SMMs, optical addressability of molecular qubits, magneto-chiral dichroism, and opto-magneto-electric multifunctionality. These findings are discussed in the context of the types of optical phenomena accessible for various classes of molecule-based magnetic materials.

Multiple control of azoquinoline based molecular photoswitches

Multi-addressable molecular switches with high sophistication are creating intensive interest, but are challenging to control. Herein, we incorporated ring-chain dynamic covalent sites into azoquinoline scaffolds for the construction of multi-responsive and multi-state switching systems. The manipulation of ring-chain equilibrium by acid/base and dynamic covalent reactions with primary/secondary amines allowed the regulation of E/Z photoisomerization. Moreover, the carboxyl and quinoline motifs provided recognition handles for the chelation of metal ions and turning off photoswitching, with otherwise inaccessible Z-isomer complexes obtained via the change of stimulation sequence. Particularly, the distinct metal binding behaviors of primary amine and secondary amine products offered a facile way for modulating E/Z switching and dynamic covalent reactivity. As a result, multiple control of azoarene photoswitches was accomplished, including light, pH, metal ions, and amine nucleophiles, with interplay between diverse stimuli further enabling addressable multi-state switching within reaction networks. The underlying structural and mechanistic insights were elucidated, paving the way for the creation of complex switching systems, molecular assemblies, and intelligent materials.

Azoheteroarene and Diazocine Molecular Photoswitches: Self-Assembly, Responsive Materials and Photopharmacology

Aromatic units tethered with an azo (-N=N-) functionality comprise a unique class of compounds, known as molecular photoswitches, exhibiting a reversible transformation between their E- and Z-isomers in response to photo-irradiation. Photoswitches have been explored extensively in the recent past to prepare dynamic self-assembled materials, optoelectronic devices, responsive biomaterials, and more. Most of such materials involve azobenzenes as the molecular photoswitch and to date, SciFinder lists more than 7000 articles and 1000 patents. Subsequently, a great deal of effort has been invested to improve the photo-isomerization efficiency and related mesoscopic properties of azobenzenes. Recently, azoheteroarenes and cyclic azobenzenes, such as arylazopyrazoles, arylazoisoxazoles, arylazopyridines, and diazocines, have emerged as second generation molecular photoswitches beyond conventional azobenzenes. These photoswitches offer distinct photoswitching behavior and responsive properties which make them highly promising candidates for multifaceted applications ranging from photoresponsive materials to photopharmacophores. In this minireview, we introduce the structural refinement and photoresponsive properties of azoheteroarenes and diazocines and summarize the state-of-the-art on utilizing these photoswitches as responsive building blocks in supramolecular assembly, material science and photopharmacology, highlighting their versatile photochemical behavior, enhanced functionality, and latest applications.

Exploring Arylazo-3,5-Bis(trifluoromethyl)pyrazole Switches

Arylazopyrazoles stand out among the azoheteroarene photoswitches due to their excellent properties in terms of stability of the least stable isomer and conversion between isomers, leading to their use in several interesting applications. We report herein the synthesis of arylazo-trifluoromethyl-substituted pyrazoles and their switching behavior under light irradiation. UV-vis and NMR experiments showed that arylazo-1H-3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)pyrazoles displayed very long half-lives in DMSO (days), along with reasonable values of other parameters that characterize a photoswitch. Inclusion of naphthyl moieties as aryl counterparts of the arylazopyrazoles is beneficial only in combination with trifluoromethyl groups, while extending the conjugation by grafting the pyrazole moiety with electron-donating or -withdrawing substituents positively affects the photoswitching behavior, in terms of isomerization yield and half-lives of the least stable isomer. The experimental values were correlated with theoretical calculations indicating the valuable influence of the trifluoromethyl groups onto the photoswitching behavior.

Recent Progress in Azopyridine-Containing Supramolecular Assembly: From Photoresponsive Liquid Crystals to Light-Driven Devices

Azobenzene derivatives have become one of the most famous photoresponsive chromophores in the past few decades for their reversible molecular switches upon the irradiation of actinic light. To meet the ever-increasing requirements for applications in materials science, biomedicine, and light-driven devices, it is usually necessary to adjust their photochemical property from the molecular level by changing the substituents on the benzene rings of azobenzene groups. Among the diverse azobenzene derivatives, azopyridine combines the photoresponsive feature of azobenzene groups and the supramolecular function of pyridyl moieties in one molecule. This unique feature provides pH-responsiveness and hydrogen/halogen/coordination binding sites in the same chromophore, paving a new way to prepare multi-functional responsive materials through non-covalent interactions and reversible chemical reactions. This review summarizes the photochemical and photophysical properties of azopyridine derivatives in supramolecular states (e.g., hydrogen/halogen bonding, coordination interactions, and quaternization reactions) and illustrates their applications from photoresponsive liquid crystals to light-driven devices. We hope this review can highlight azopyridine as one more versatile candidate molecule for designing novel photoresponsive materials towards light-driven applications.

Thermoresponsive Self-Assembly of Twofold Fluorescently Labeled Block Copolymers in Aqueous Solution and Microemulsions

A nonionic double hydrophilic block copolymer with a long permanently hydrophilic and a small thermoresponsive block is synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization (RAFT). By employing a specifically designed chain-transfer agent, the polymer is functionalized with complementary end groups which are suited for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). The end group attached to the permanently hydrophilic block of poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) pDMAm is designed as a permanently hydrophobic segment ("sticker") comprising a long alkyl chain and the 4-aminonaphthalimide fluorophore. The other end attached to the thermoresponsive block of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) pNiPAm incorporates a coumarin fluorophore. The temperature-dependent self-assembly of the twofold fluorescently labeled copolymer is studied in pure aqueous solution as well as in an o/w microemulsion by several techniques including turbidimetry, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and fluorescence spectroscopy. It is compared to the behaviors of the analogous twofold-labeled pDMAm and pNiPAm homopolymer references. The findings indicate that the block copolymer behaves as a polymeric surfactant at low temperatures, with one relatively small hydrophobic end block and an extended hydrophilic chain forming "hairy micelles". At elevated temperatures above the LCST phase transition of the pNiPAm block, however, the copolymer behaves as an associative telechelic polymer with two nonsymmetrical hydrophobic end blocks, which do not mix. Thus, instead of a network of bridged "flower micelles", large dynamic aggregates are formed. These are connected alternatingly by the original micellar cores as well as by clusters of the collapsed pNiPAm blocks. This type of structure is even more favored in the o/w microemulsion than in pure aqueous solution, as the microemulsion droplets constitute an attractive anchoring point for the hydrophobic dodecyl sticker but not for the collapsed pNiPAm chains.

Photoswitchable Binary Nanopore Conductance and Selective Electronic Detection of Single Biomolecules under Wavelength and Voltage Polarity Control

We fabricated photoregulated thin-film nanopores by covalently linking azobenzene photoswitches to silicon nitride pores with ∼10 nm diameters. The photoresponsive coatings could be repeatedly optically switched with deterministic ∼6 nm changes to the effective nanopore diameter and of ∼3× to the nanopore ionic conductance. The sensitivity to anionic DNA and a neutral complex carbohydrate biopolymer (maltodextrin) could be photoswitched "on" and "off" with an analyte selectivity set by applied voltage polarity. Photocontrol of nanopore state and mass transport characteristics is important for their use as ionic circuit elements (e.g., resistors and binary bits) and as chemically tuned filters. It expands single-molecule sensing capabilities in personalized medicine, genomics, glycomics, and, augmented by voltage polarity selectivity, especially in multiplexed biopolymer information storage schemes. We demonstrate repeatedly photocontrolled stable nanopore size, polarity, conductance, and sensing selectivity, by illumination wavelength and voltage polarity, with broad utility including single-molecule sensing of biologically and technologically important polymers.

A rare earth metallocene containing a 2,2'-azopyridyl radical anion

Introducing spin onto organic ligands that are coordinated to rare earth metal ions allows direct exchange with metal spin centres. This is particularly relevant for the deeply buried 4f-orbitals of the lanthanide ions that can give rise to unparalleled magnetic properties. For efficacy of exchange coupling, the donor atoms of the radical ligand require high-spin density. Such molecules are extremely rare owing to their reactive nature that renders isolation and purification difficult. Here, we demonstrate that a 2,2′-azopyridyl (abpy) radical (S = 1/2) bound to the rare earth metal yttrium can be realized. This molecule represents the first rare earth metal complex containing an abpy radical and is unambigously characterized by X-ray crystallography, NMR, UV-Vis-NIR, and IR spectroscopy. In addition, the most stable isotope ⁸⁹Y with a natural abundance of 100% and a nuclear spin of ½ allows an in-depth analysis of the yttrium–radical complex via EPR and HYSCORE spectroscopy. Further insight into the electronic ground state of the radical azobispyridine-coordinated metal complex was realized through unrestricted DFT calculations, which suggests that the unpaired spin density of the SOMO is heavily localized on the azo and pyridyl nitrogen atoms. The experimental results are supported by NBO calculations and give a comprehensive picture of the spin density of the azopyridyl ancillary ligand. This unexplored azopyridyl radical anion in heavy element chemistry bears crucial implications for the design of molecule-based magnets particularly comprising anisotropic lanthanide ions.

Unambiguous characterization of the first 2,2′-azobispyridine radical-containing rare earth metal complex through X-ray crystallography, DFT computations, EPR and HYSCORE spectroscopy.

Photo-/Electroinduced Irreversible Isomerization of 2,2'-Azobispyridine Ligands in Arene Ruthenium(II) Complexes

Novel arene Ru^II complexes containing 2,2'-azobispyridine ligands were synthesized and characterized by using ¹ H and ¹³ C NMR spectroscopy, UV/vis spectroscopy, electrochemistry, DFT calculations and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Z-configured complexes featuring unprecedented seven-membered chelate rings involving the nitrogen atom of both pyridines were isolated and were shown to undergo irreversible isomerization to the corresponding E-configured five-membered chelate complexes in response to light or electrochemical stimulus.