Comparison of drug release behavior of bacterial cellulose loaded with ibuprofen and propranolol hydrochloride

Development and optimization of hydrogel-forming microneedles fabricated with 3d-printed molds for enhanced dermal diclofenac sodium delivery: a comprehensive in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo study

With the developing manufacturing technologies, the use of 3D printers in microneedle production is becoming widespread. Hydrogel-forming microneedles (HFMs), a variant of microneedles, demonstrate distinctive features such as a high loading capacity and controlled drug release. In this study, the conical microneedle master molds with approximately 500 μm needle height and 250 μm base diameter were created using a Stereolithography (SLA) 3D printer and were utilized to fabricate composite HFMs containing diclofenac sodium. Using Box-Behnken Design, the effects of different polymers on swelling index and mechanical strength of the developed HFMs were evaluated. The optimum HFMs were selected according to experimental design results with the aim of the highest mechanical strength with varying swelling indexes, which was needed to use 20% Gantrez S97 and 0.1% (F22), 0.42% (F23), and 1% (F24) hyaluronic acid. The skin penetration and drug release properties of the optimum formulations were assessed. Ex vivo studies were conducted on formulations to determine drug penetration and accumulation. F24, which has the highest mechanical strength and optimized swelling index, achieved the highest drug accumulation in the skin tissue (17.70 ± 3.66%). All optimum HFMs were found to be non-cytotoxic by the MTT cell viability test (> 70% cell viability). In in vivo studies, the efficacy of the F24 was assessed for the treatment of xylene-induced ear edema by contrasting it to the conventional dosage form. It was revealed that HFMs might be an improved replacement for conventional dosage forms in terms of dermal diseases such as actinic keratosis.

Gradually-frozen aligned bacterial nanocellulose membranes loaded with gallic acid exhibit enhanced mechanical and dual antithrombotic-antimicrobial properties

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is a versatile natural polymer with unique morphological properties. However, its susceptibility to biofouling limits its utility in healthcare. To address this challenge, this study explores the incorporation of gallic acid, a phenolic acid with potent antimicrobial and antithrombotic properties, into BNC membranes. Additionally, a novel drying method termed gradual freezing is introduced, resulting in a directionally-aligned BNC membrane with enhanced mechanical integrity and high porosity. Using glycerol as a solvent and plasticizer, gallic acid was loaded into air-dried BNC (AD-BNC), freeze-dried BNC (FD-BNC), and gradually-frozen BNC (GF-BNC) membranes. Successful drug-loading into FD-BNC and GF-BNC significantly increased the elasticity of the films, however mechanical testing indicated that GF-BNC and its gallic acid/glycerol loaded counterpart (GF-GG-BNC) achieved overall optimal mechanical strength and elasticity. These samples were selected for further antifouling testing. Antibacterial assays demonstrated the practical efficacy of GF-GG-BNC in inhibiting the proliferation and biofilm formation of E. coli and S. aureus, while favorable antithrombotic behaviour prevented clot formation and red blood cell adhesion on the material's surface when compared to GF-BNC membranes. These findings highlight the potential of GF-GG-BNC as a multifunctional biomaterial for the prevention of biofouling in biomedical applications.

Bacterial cellulose in transdermal drug delivery systems: Expanding horizons in multi-scale therapeutics and patient-centric approach

This review explores the transformative potential of Bacterial cellulose (BC) in an increasingly vital avenue of transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) for multi-scale therapeutic applications with patient-centric approach. In this review, we have not only highlighted the role of BC as the main matrix material for TDDS but emphasized the other possible role that BC can play in TDDS. For this purpose, we have delved into the avenues of the physico-chemical interactions that BC can offer in governing the incorporation of different length-scales of therapeutics as well as tuning their extent of loading. Furthermore, this review underscores BC's potential in developing need-specific drug release profiles and stimuli-responsive release platforms, enabling their application in TDDS for wound healing, pain management, and targeted delivery for chronic diseases. Apart from the existing literature, this review focuses on patient comfort, which is an often-overlooked aspect, and highlights how BC's unique physicochemical properties enhance user experience. Additionally, this review justifies the potential of BC in compliance with the other parameters of the TDDS, including shelf-life, design requirements, and evaluation strategies in ensuring their clinical translation and user acceptance. To harness BC's potential in the new era of personalized TDDS, this review also sheds light on the challenges of standardizing BC production processes with appropriate data disclosure, ensuring adhesion and anti-microbial actions, along with the integration of passive and active technologies.

Bacterial cellulose in cosmetic innovation: A review

Bacterial cellulose (BC) emerges as a versatile biomaterial with a myriad of industrial applications, particularly within the cosmetics sector. The absence of hemicellulose, lignin, and pectin in its pure cellulose structure enables favorable interactions with both hydrophilic and hydrophobic biopolymers. This enhances compatibility with active ingredients commonly employed in cosmetics, such as antioxidants, vitamins, and botanical extracts. Recent progress in BC-based materials, which encompasses membranes, films, gels, nanocrystals, and nanofibers, highlights its significant potential in cosmetics. In this context, BC not only serves as a carrier for active ingredients but also plays a crucial role as a structural agent in formulations. The sustainability of BC production and processing is a central focus, highlighting the need for innovative approaches to strengthen scalability and cost-effectiveness. Future research endeavors, including the exploration of novel cultivation strategies and functionalization techniques, aim to maximize BC's therapeutic potential while broadening its scope in personalized skincare regimes. Therefore, this review emphasizes the crucial contribution of BC to the cosmetics sector, underlining its role in fostering innovation, sustainability, and ethical skincare practices. By integrating recent research findings and industry trends, this review proposes a fresh approach to advancing both skincare science and environmental responsibility in the cosmetics industry.

Physicochemical, structural and biological characterisation of poly(3-hydroxyoctanoate) supplemented with diclofenac acid conjugates - Harnessing the potential in the construction of materials for skin regeneration processes

This study involved creating oligomeric conjugates of 3-hydroxy fatty acids and diclofenac, named Dic-oligo(3HAs). Advanced NMR techniques confirmed no free diclofenac in the mix. We tested diclofenac release under conditions resembling healthy and chronic wound skin. These oligomers were used to make P(3HO) blends, forming patches for drug delivery. Their preparation used the solvent casting/porogen leaching (SCPL) method. The patches' properties like porosity, roughness, and wettability were thoroughly analysed. Antimicrobial assays showed that Dic-oligo(3HAs) exhibited antimicrobial activity against reference (S. aureus, S. epidermis, S. faecalis) and clinical (Staphylococcus spp.) strains. Human keratinocytes (HaCaT) cell line tests, as per ISO 10993-5, showed no toxicity. A clear link between material roughness and HaCaT cell adhesion was found. Deep cell infiltration was verified using DAPI and phalloidin staining, observed under confocal microscopy. SEM also confirmed HaCaT cell growth on these scaffolds. The strong adhesion and proliferation of HaCaT cells on these materials indicate their potential as wound dressing layers. Additionally, the successful diclofenac release tests point to their applicability in treating both normal and chronic wounds.

Comparison of Properties of Acetaminophen Tablets Prepared by Wet Granulation Using Freeze-Dried Versus Phase-Inversion Bacterial Cellulose as Diluent

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is an interesting material for drug delivery applications due to its high purity. This study aimed to compare the properties of tablets prepared by the wet granulation method using bacterial cellulose prepared by different methods as a diluent, using acetaminophen as a model drug. BC used as diluents were prepared using two different methods: freeze-drying (BC-FD) and phase-inversion (BC-PI), and their characteristics were analyzed and compared with that of commercial microcrystalline cellulose PH 101 (Comprecel® M101). Acetaminophen tablets were prepared by wet granulation using BC-FD, BC-PI, or Comprecel® M101 as diluents, and their tablet properties were examined. The result showed that the morphology, polymorph, and crystallinity of BC-PI and Comprecel® M101 were similar but they were different compared with that of BC-FD. Tablets could be successfully formed using BC-PI and Comprecel® M101 as diluents without any physical defects but the tablet prepared using BC-FD as diluent appeared chipped edge. The characteristics (thickness, weight variation, hardness, friability, disintegration, drug content, and dissolution) of the tablets prepared using BC-PI diluent were also similar to those prepared using Comprecel® M101 diluent, but those of BC-FD diluent were inferior. This indicates that BC prepared in BC-PI can potentially be used as a diluent for tablets prepared by wet granulation.

Controllable Drug-Release Ratio and Rate of Doxorubicin-Loaded Natural Composite Films Based on Polysaccharides: Evaluation of Transdermal Permeability Potential

In drug delivery systems, it is crucial to develop a drug carrier capable of regulating both the drug-release rate and the drug-release ratio. This study proposes a method for controlling the drug-release ratio/rate using doxorubicin-loaded natural composite films composed of polysaccharides (cellulose, chitin, chitosan, or cellulose nanocrystal) and mineral substances (MMT: montmorillonite). We succeeded in controlling the doxorubicin release ratio from 25 to 88% depending on the natural polysaccharide. Likewise, the reduction rate differed depending on the type of natural polysaccharide, whereas the reduction in release was achieved by mixing MMT. Cellulose had the largest reduction in the drug release ratio, approximately 30%, and cellulose nanocrystals showed little change. Furthermore, we conducted a skin permeation test on the natural polysaccharide film with the highest release rate to confirm its transdermal permeability potential. The polysaccharide doxorubicin-loaded film sustainably released doxorubicin for 2 days, which indicated the potential of a carrier for DDS applications.

Three-dimensional eco-friendly bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) scaffold for regenerative dentistry: Characterization, cytocompatibility and differentiation potential

OBJECTIVE

Regenerative dentistry (RD) is an innovative strategy for treating necrotic teeth and regenerating damaged dental tissue. Biocompatible materials are pivotal for the advancement of RD, and the rising interest in environmental sustainability drives exploration of sustainable materials for dentistry. Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) has emerged as a promising eco-friendly option and this study aims to assess BNC's suitability as scaffolds for regenerative dentistry applications.

METHODS

Different in vitro methods have been utilized to characterize the properties of BNC scaffolds in regenerative dentistry, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to analyse surface property and porosity, as well as examining their absorption behaviour using phosphate-buffered saline and bovine serum. Dental pulp stem cell (DPSCs) attachment, viability, and proliferation were evaluated using SEM, live and dead, and tetrazolium reduction assays. The odontogenic potential of the scaffold was evaluated using Alizarin Red staining and qPCR (14 and 21 days).

RESULTS

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images and ethanol displacement method demonstrated the porous architecture of the BNC scaffold with an average porosity of 70.02 ± 4.74% and 50.26 ± 1.43% respectively. The scaffold absorbed 2846.54 ± 258.95 of BSA and 1648.63 ± 50.37% PBS after immersion in solution for 1 h, following pseudo first and second order kinetics. The biocompatibility assay indicated that cell density increased with time and that the scaffold was appropriate for cell adhesion and migration. Moreover, the BNC led to significantly higher mineralization and odontogenic expression compared to the control (BNC in conditioned media).

SIGNIFICANCE

BNC showed fast adsorption of bovine serum, allowed DPSC attachment, migration, and odontogenic differentiation. This suggests its suitability as a biocompatible scaffold for triggering in situ mineralized tissue regeneration for regenerative dental applications.

Bacterial cellulose nanocrystal as drug delivery system for overcoming the biological barrier of cyano-phycocyanin: a biomedical application of microbial product

Phycocyanin, produced by Spirulina platensis, has been reported as an anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperalgesia, antioxidant, anti-tumor, and anti-cancer agent. However, the ingestion of phycocyanin in the body is often hindered by its instability against gastric pH conditions. The nano-drug delivery system has developed as a promising platform for efficient drug delivery and improvement as well as drug efficacy. Bacterial cellulose nanocrystal (BCNC) has it superiority as DDS due to its inherent properties such as nanoscale dimension, large surface area, - biocompatibility, and non-toxic. To improve its mechanical properties, BCNC was crosslinked with glutaraldehyde and was analyzed as a potential candidate for DDS. The Fourier transform infrared analysis of the BCNC suggested that hydrolysis did not alter the chemical composition. The index of crystallinity of the BCNC was 18.31% higher than that of the original BC, suggesting that crystalline BC has been successfully isolated. The BCNC particle also showed a needle-like morphology which is 25 ± 10 nm in diameter and a mean length of 626 ± 172 nm. Crosslinked BCNC also had larger pores than the original BCNC along with higher thermal stability. Optimum phycocyanin adsorption on crosslinked BCNC reached 65.3% in 3 h. The release study shows that the crosslinked BCNC can protect the phycocyanin retardation by gastric fluid until phycocyanin reaches the targeted sites. This study provides an alternative potential DDS derived from natural bioresources with less expenses and better properties to promote the application of BCNC as functional nanomaterials in biomedical science.

Bacterial cellulose-based composites as vehicles for dermal and transdermal drug delivery: A review

In recent years, a significant amount of drugs have been taken orally, which are not as effective as desired. To solve this problem, bacterial cellulose-based dermal/transdermal drug delivery systems (BC-DDSs) with unique properties such as cell compatibility, hemocompatibility, tunable mechanical properties, and the ability to encapsulate various therapeutic agents with the controlled release have been introduced. A BC-dermal/transdermal DDS reduces first-pass metabolism and systematic side effects while improving patient compliance and dosage effectiveness by controlling drug release through the skin. The barrier function of the skin, especially the stratum corneum, can interfere with drug delivery. Few drugs can pass through the skin to reach effective concentrations in the blood to treat diseases. Due to their unique physicochemical properties and high potential to reduce immunogenicity and improve bioavailability, BC-dermal/transdermal DDSs are widely used to deliver various types of drugs for disease treatment. In this review, we describe the different types of BC-dermal/ transdermal DDSs, along with a critical discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of these systems. After the general presentation, the review is focused on recent advances in the preparation and applications of BC-based dermal/transdermal DDSs in various types of disease treatment.

Opportunities for bacterial nanocellulose in biomedical applications: Review on biosynthesis, modification and challenges

Bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) is a natural polysaccharide produced as extracellular material by bacterial strains and has favorable intrinsic properties for primary use in biomedical applications. In this review, an update on state-of-the art and challenges in BNC production, surface modification and biomedical application is given. Recent insights in biosynthesis allowed for better understanding of governing parameters improving production efficiency. In particular, introduction of different carbon/nitrogen sources from alternative feedstock and industrial upscaling of various production methods is challenging. It is important to have control on the morphology, porosity and forms of BNC depending on biosynthesis conditions, depending on selection of bacterial strains, reactor design, additives and culture conditions. The BNC is intrinsically characterized by high water absorption capacity, good thermal and mechanical stability, biocompatibility and biodegradability to certain extent. However, additional chemical and/or physical surface modifications are required to improve cell compatibility, protein interaction and antimicrobial properties. The novel trends in synthesis include the in-situ culturing of hybrid BNC nanocomposites in combination with organic material, inorganic material or extracellular components. In parallel with toxicity studies, the applications of BNC in wound care, tissue engineering, medical implants, drug delivery systems or carriers for bioactive compounds, and platforms for biosensors are highlighted.