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Habumugisha T, Zhang Z, Uwizewe C, Yan C, Ndayishimiye JC, Rehman A, Zhang X. Toxicological review of micro- and nano-plastics in aquatic environments: Risks to ecosystems, food web dynamics and human health. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 278:116426. [PMID: 38718727 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
The increase of micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) in aquatic environments has become a significant concern due to their potential toxicological effects on ecosystems, food web dynamics, and human health. These plastic particles emerge from a range of sources, such as the breakdown of larger plastic waste, consumer products, and industrial outputs. This review provides a detailed report of the transmission and dangers of MNPs in aquatic ecosystems, environmental behavior, and interactions within aquatic food webs, emphasizing their toxic impact on marine life. It explores the relationship between particle size and toxicity, their distribution in different tissues, and the process of trophic transfer through the food web. MNPs, once consumed, can be found in various organs, including the digestive system, gills, and liver. Their consumption by lower trophic level organisms facilitates their progression up the food chain, potentially leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification, thereby posing substantial risks to the health, reproduction, and behavior of aquatic species. This work also explores how MNPs, through their persistence and bioaccumulation, pose risks to aquatic biodiversity and disrupt trophic relationships. The review also addresses the implications of MNPs for human health, particularly through the consumption of contaminated seafood, highlighting the direct and indirect pathways through which humans are exposed to these pollutants. Furthermore, the review highlights the recommendations for future research directions, emphasizing the integration of ecological, toxicological, and human health studies to inform risk assessments and develop mitigation strategies to address the global challenge of plastic pollution in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Théogène Habumugisha
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, PR China
| | - Zixing Zhang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, PR China
| | - Constance Uwizewe
- Key Laboratory of Physical Oceanography, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, PR China
| | - Changzhou Yan
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, PR China
| | | | - Abdul Rehman
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, PR China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, PR China
| | - Xian Zhang
- Key Lab of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, PR China.
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2
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Vidal-Abad A, Casal MA, Rey-Aguiño JM, Pichel-González A, Solana-Muñoz A, Poza-Nogueiras V, Varela Z, Galbán-Malagón C, Ouro P, Fernández-Sanlés A. Case report of plastic nurdles pollution in Galicia (NW Atlantic) following the Toconao's spill in December 2023: The VIEIRA Collaborative. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 203:116442. [PMID: 38718547 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Plastic nurdles pose a significant environmental threat due to recurrent accidental spills into marine ecosystems. This report examines the nurdle pollution over the 1498 km of the Galician coastline (Spain) following the spill of 25 t of nurdles into the Northwest Atlantic after the loss of six containers from the Toconao vessel in December 2023. This accident highlights the urgent need for proactive, effective measures in maritime transport to prevent and mitigate such environmental catastrophes. The complexity of nurdle dispersion challenges the evaluation of their fate at sea, and the potential long-term consequences on the marine ecosystem and food web remain uncertain and yet to be investigated. This report also presents the VIEIRA collaborative and underscores the critical role of citizen-led initiatives in responding to such environmental disasters, and advocates for efficient policy reforms, involving cross-border collaboration. Furthermore, we call for greater international cooperation to underpin effective regulatory frameworks to address the growing hazard of plastic nurdle pollution worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Miguel A Casal
- CITIC-Research Center of Information and Communication Technologies, University of A Coruña, A Coruña, Spain
| | | | | | | | - Verónica Poza-Nogueiras
- CINTECX, University of Vigo, Bioengineering and Sustainable Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering, Vigo, Spain
| | - Zulema Varela
- CRETUS, Ecology Unit, Department Functional Biology, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Cristóbal Galbán-Malagón
- GEMA, Center for Genomics, Ecology & Environment, Universidad Mayor, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile; Institute of Environment, Florida International University, University Park, Miami, USA
| | - Pablo Ouro
- School of Engineering, The University of Manchester, United Kingdom.
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3
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Sil D, Osmanbasic E, Mandal SC, Acharya A, Dutta C. Variable Non-Gaussian Transport of Nanoplastic on Supported Lipid Bilayers in Saline Conditions. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:5428-5435. [PMID: 38743920 PMCID: PMC11129298 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c00806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 04/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Nanoplastic-lipid interaction is vital to understanding the nanoscale mechanism of plastic adsorption and aggregation on a lipid membrane surface. However, a single-particle mechanistic picture of the nanoplastic transport process on a lipid surface remains unclear. Here, we report a salt-dependent non-Gaussian transport mechanism of polystyrene particles on a supported 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) lipid bilayer surface. Particle stickiness on the POPC surface increases with salt concentration, where the particles stay longer at the surface and diffuse to shorter distances. Additionally, a non-Gaussian diffusion state dominates the transport process at high salt concentrations. Our current study provides insight into the transport mechanism of polystyrene (PS) particles on supported lipid membranes, which is essential to understanding fundamental questions regarding the adsorption mechanisms of nanoplastics on lipid surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diyali Sil
- Department
of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, United
States
| | - Edin Osmanbasic
- Department
of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, United
States
| | - Sasthi Charan Mandal
- Department
of Chemistry, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, United
States
| | - Atanu Acharya
- Department
of Chemistry, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, United
States
- BioInspired
Syracuse, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, United
States
| | - Chayan Dutta
- Department
of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia 30303, United
States
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4
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Płuciennik K, Sicińska P, Misztal W, Bukowska B. Important Factors Affecting Induction of Cell Death, Oxidative Stress and DNA Damage by Nano- and Microplastic Particles In Vitro. Cells 2024; 13:768. [PMID: 38727304 PMCID: PMC11083305 DOI: 10.3390/cells13090768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
We have described the influence of selected factors that increase the toxicity of nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs) with regard to cell viability, various types of cell death, reactive oxygen species (ROS) induction, and genotoxicity. These factors include plastic particle size (NPs/MPs), zeta potential, exposure time, concentration, functionalization, and the influence of environmental factors and cell type. Studies have unequivocally shown that smaller plastic particles are more cytotoxic, penetrate cells more easily, increase ROS formation, and induce oxidative damage to proteins, lipids, and DNA. The toxic effects also increase with concentration and incubation time. NPs with positive zeta potential are also more toxic than those with a negative zeta potential because the cells are negatively charged, inducing stronger interactions. The deleterious effects of NPs and MPs are increased by functionalization with anionic or carboxyl groups, due to greater interaction with cell membrane components. Cationic NPs/MPs are particularly toxic due to their greater cellular uptake and/or their effects on cells and lysosomal membranes. The effects of polystyrene (PS) vary from one cell type to another, and normal cells are more sensitive to NPs than cancerous ones. The toxicity of NPs/MPs can be enhanced by environmental factors, including UV radiation, as they cause the particles to shrink and change their shape, which is a particularly important consideration when working with environmentally-changed NPs/MPs. In summary, the cytotoxicity, oxidative properties, and genotoxicity of plastic particles depends on their concentration, duration of action, and cell type. Also, NPs/MPs with a smaller diameter and positive zeta potential, and those exposed to UV and functionalized with amino groups, demonstrate higher toxicity than larger, non-functionalized and environmentally-unchanged particles with a negative zeta potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Bożena Bukowska
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Department of Biophysics of Environmental Pollution, Pomorska 141/143, 90-236 Lodz, Poland; (K.P.); (P.S.); (W.M.)
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Peng M, Félix RC, Canário AVM, Power DM. The physiological effect of polystyrene nanoplastic particles on fish and human fibroblasts. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 914:169979. [PMID: 38215851 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.169979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Numerous studies have identified the detrimental effects for the biosphere of large plastic debris, the effect of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) is less clear. The skin is the first point of contact with NPs, and skin fibroblasts have a vital role in maintaining skin structure and function. Here, a comparative approach is taken using three fibroblast cell lines from the zebrafish (SJD.1), human male newborn (BJ-5ta) and female adult (HDF/TERT164) and their response to polystyrene NP (PS-NPs) exposure is characterized. Cells were exposed to environmentally relevant PS-NP sizes (50, 500 and 1000 nm) and concentrations (0.001 to 10 μg/ml) and their uptake (1000 nm), and effect on cell viability, proliferation, migration, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, apoptosis, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and acid phosphatase (AP) determined. All fibroblasts took up PS-NPs, and a relationship between PS-NP particle size and concentration and the inhibition of proliferation and cell migration was identified. The inhibitory effect of PS-NPs on proliferation was more pronounced for human skin fibroblasts. The presence of PS-NPs negatively affected fibroblast migration in a time-, size- and concentration-dependent manner with larger PS-NPs at higher concentrations causing a more significant inhibition of cell migration, with human fibroblasts being the most affected. No major changes were detected in ROS production or apoptosis in NP challenged fibroblasts. While the ALP activity was increased in all fibroblast cell lines, only fish fibroblasts showed a significant increase in AP activity. The heterogeneous response of fibroblasts induced by PS-NPs was clearly revealed by the segregation of HDF, BJ.5ta and SJD.1 fibroblasts in principal component analysis. Our results demonstrate that PS-NP exposure adversely affected cellular processes in a cell-type and dose-specific manner in distinct fibroblast cell lines, emphasizing the need for further exploration of NP interactions with different cell types to better understand potential implications for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maoxiao Peng
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Rute C Félix
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Adelino V M Canário
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; International Institution of Marine Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Deborah M Power
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR), Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; International Institution of Marine Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China.
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Grunst ML, Grunst AS, Grémillet D, Fort J. Combined threats of climate change and contaminant exposure through the lens of bioenergetics. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2023; 29:5139-5168. [PMID: 37381110 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.16822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Organisms face energetic challenges of climate change in combination with suites of natural and anthropogenic stressors. In particular, chemical contaminant exposure has neurotoxic, endocrine-disrupting, and behavioral effects which may additively or interactively combine with challenges associated with climate change. We used a literature review across animal taxa and contaminant classes, but focused on Arctic endotherms and contaminants important in Arctic ecosystems, to demonstrate potential for interactive effects across five bioenergetic domains: (1) energy supply, (2) energy demand, (3) energy storage, (4) energy allocation tradeoffs, and (5) energy management strategies; and involving four climate change-sensitive environmental stressors: changes in resource availability, temperature, predation risk, and parasitism. Identified examples included relatively equal numbers of synergistic and antagonistic interactions. Synergies are often suggested to be particularly problematic, since they magnify biological effects. However, we emphasize that antagonistic effects on bioenergetic traits can be equally problematic, since they can reflect dampening of beneficial responses and result in negative synergistic effects on fitness. Our review also highlights that empirical demonstrations remain limited, especially in endotherms. Elucidating the nature of climate change-by-contaminant interactive effects on bioenergetic traits will build toward determining overall outcomes for energy balance and fitness. Progressing to determine critical species, life stages, and target areas in which transformative effects arise will aid in forecasting broad-scale bioenergetic outcomes under global change scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa L Grunst
- Littoral, Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS-La Rochelle Université, La Rochelle, France
| | - Andrea S Grunst
- Littoral, Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS-La Rochelle Université, La Rochelle, France
| | - David Grémillet
- CEFE, Univ Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
- Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
| | - Jérôme Fort
- Littoral, Environnement et Sociétés (LIENSs), UMR 7266 CNRS-La Rochelle Université, La Rochelle, France
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7
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Kose T, Lins TF, Wang J, O'Brien AM, Sinton D, Frederickson ME. Accelerated high-throughput imaging and phenotyping system for small organisms. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0287739. [PMID: 37478145 PMCID: PMC10361482 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0287739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Studying the complex web of interactions in biological communities requires large multifactorial experiments with sufficient statistical power. Automation tools reduce the time and labor associated with setup, data collection, and analysis in experiments that untangle these webs. We developed tools for high-throughput experimentation (HTE) in duckweeds, small aquatic plants that are amenable to autonomous experimental preparation and image-based phenotyping. We showcase the abilities of our HTE system in a study with 6,000 experimental units grown across 2,000 treatments. These automated tools facilitated the collection and analysis of time-resolved growth data, which revealed finer dynamics of plant-microbe interactions across environmental gradients. Altogether, our HTE system can run experiments with up to 11,520 experimental units and can be adapted for other small organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talha Kose
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tiago F Lins
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jessie Wang
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Anna M O'Brien
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, United States of America
| | - David Sinton
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Megan E Frederickson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Saleh WM, Ahmad MI, Yahya EB, H P S AK. Nanostructured Bioaerogels as a Potential Solution for Particulate Matter Pollution. Gels 2023; 9:575. [PMID: 37504454 PMCID: PMC10379271 DOI: 10.3390/gels9070575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Particulate matter (PM) pollution is a significant environmental and public health issue globally. Exposure to high levels of PM, especially fine particles, can have severe health consequences. These particles can come from a variety of sources, including natural events like dust storms and wildfires, as well as human activities such as industrial processes and transportation. Although an extensive development in air filtration techniques has been made in the past few years, fine particulate matter still poses a serios and dangerous threat to human health and to our environment. Conventional air filters are fabricated from non-biodegradable and non-ecofriendly materials which can cause further environmental pollution as a result of their excessive use. Nanostructured biopolymer aerogels have shown great promise in the field of particulate matter removal. Their unique properties, renewable nature, and potential for customization make them attractive materials for air pollution control. In the present review, we discuss the meaning, properties, and advantages of nanostructured aerogels and their potential in particulate matter removal. Particulate matter pollution, types and sources of particulate matter, health effect, environmental effect, and the challenges facing scientists in particulate matter removal are also discussed in the present review. Finally, we present the most recent advances in using nanostructured bioaerogels in the removal of different types of particulate matter and discuss the challenges that we face in these applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wafa Mustafa Saleh
- Environmental Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Mardiana Idayu Ahmad
- Environmental Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
- Renewable Biomass Transformation Cluster, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Esam Bashir Yahya
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
- Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging Cluster, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
| | - Abdul Khalil H P S
- Green Biopolymer, Coatings and Packaging Cluster, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
- Bioresource Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
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Bergami E, Krupinski Emerenciano A, Palmeira Pinto L, Reina Joviano W, Font A, Almeida de Godoy T, Silva JRMC, González-Aravena M, Corsi I. Behavioural, physiological and molecular responses of the Antarctic fairy shrimp Branchinecta gaini (Daday, 1910) to polystyrene nanoplastics. NANOIMPACT 2022; 28:100437. [PMID: 36332901 DOI: 10.1016/j.impact.2022.100437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plastic pollution represents an emerging environmental issue in terrestrial Antarctica, especially in the Antarctic Peninsula and Maritime Antarctica, which have been recently recognized as hot spots for plastic litter. In these regions, freshwater (FW) environments such as lakes host isolated ecosystems and species that can be severely affected by increasing environmental and anthropogenic stressors, which include plastics that are still overlooked. In this study, we investigated for the first time the impact of nanoplastics on adults of the fairy shrimp Branchinecta gaini (Order Anostraca) populating Antarctic FW ecosystems, using surface charged polystyrene nanoparticles (PS NPs) as a proxy. Short-term acute toxicity (48 h) was investigated by exposing adults to carboxyl (-COOH, 60 nm) and amino-modified (-NH2, 50 nm) PS NPs at 1 and 5 μg mL-1. Biodisposition of PS NPs and lethal and sub-lethal effects (i.e., swimming, moulting, histology, gene expression) were assessed. Behaviour of PS NPs in Antarctic FW media was monitored through 48 h of exposure showing that both PS NPs kept their nanoscale size in the Antarctic FW media. Survival of fairy shrimp adults over short-term exposure was not affected, on the other hand an increase in moulting rate and alterations in the gut epithelium were observed upon exposure to both PS NPs. Significant alterations at the behavioural (ventilation rate) and molecular (up-regulation of Hsp70mit, Hsp83, Sod, P450) levels were related to PS NP surface charge and associated with PS-NH2 exposure only. Nanoplastics could represent a threat for Antarctic FW biodiversity and the Antarctic fairy shrimp could be a valuable model for assessing their impact on such remote and pristine aquatic ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Bergami
- Department of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Via Mattioli 4, 53100 Siena, Italy; Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 213/D, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - A Krupinski Emerenciano
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. L. Prestes 1524, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - L Palmeira Pinto
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. L. Prestes 1524, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - W Reina Joviano
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. L. Prestes 1524, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - A Font
- Scientific Department, Chilean Antarctic Institute, Plaza Muñoz Gamero 1055, 6200965 Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - T Almeida de Godoy
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. L. Prestes 1524, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - J R M C Silva
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. L. Prestes 1524, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - M González-Aravena
- Scientific Department, Chilean Antarctic Institute, Plaza Muñoz Gamero 1055, 6200965 Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - I Corsi
- Department of Physical, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Siena, Via Mattioli 4, 53100 Siena, Italy
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