1
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Sanz D, García JL, Díaz E. Expanding the current knowledge and biotechnological applications of the oxygen-independent ortho-phthalate degradation pathway. Environ Microbiol 2020; 22:3478-3493. [PMID: 32510798 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.15119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
ortho-Phthalate derives from industrially produced phthalate esters, which are massively used as plasticizers and constitute major emerging environmental pollutants. The pht pathway for the anaerobic bacterial biodegradation of o-phthalate involves its activation to phthaloyl-CoA followed by decarboxylation to benzoyl-CoA. Here, we have explored further the pht peripheral pathway in denitrifying bacteria and shown that it requires also an active transport system for o-phthalate uptake that belongs to the poorly characterized class of TAXI-TRAP transporters. The construction of a fully functional pht cassette combining both catabolic and transport genes allowed to expand the o-phthalate degradation ecological trait to heterologous hosts. Unexpectedly, the pht cassette also allowed the aerobic conversion of o-phthalate to benzoyl-CoA when coupled to a functional box central pathway. Hence, the pht pathway may constitute an evolutionary acquisition for o-phthalate degradation by bacteria that thrive either in anoxic environments or in environments that face oxygen limitations and that rely on benzoyl-CoA, rather than on catecholic central intermediates, for the aerobic catabolism of aromatic compounds. Finally, the recombinant pht cassette was used both to screen for functional aerobic box pathways in bacteria and to engineer recombinant biocatalysts for o-phthalate bioconversion into sustainable bioplastics, e.g., polyhydroxybutyrate, in plastic recycling industrial processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Sanz
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - José L García
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Eduardo Díaz
- Department of Microbial and Plant Biotechnology, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas Margarita Salas-CSIC, Madrid, Spain
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2
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Boll M, Geiger R, Junghare M, Schink B. Microbial degradation of phthalates: biochemistry and environmental implications. ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2020; 12:3-15. [PMID: 31364812 DOI: 10.1111/1758-2229.12787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The environmentally relevant xenobiotic esters of phthalic acid (PA), isophthalic acid (IPA) and terephthalic acid (TPA) are produced on a million ton scale annually and are predominantly used as plastic polymers or plasticizers. Degradation by microorganisms is considered as the most effective means of their elimination from the environment and proceeds via hydrolysis to the corresponding PA isomers and alcohols under oxic and anoxic conditions. Further degradation of PA, IPA and TPA differs fundamentally between anaerobic and aerobic microorganisms. The latter introduce hydroxyl functionalities by dioxygenases to facilitate subsequent decarboxylation by either aromatizing dehydrogenases or cofactor-free decarboxylases. In contrast, anaerobic bacteria activate the PA isomers to the respective thioesters using CoA ligases or CoA transferases followed by decarboxylation to the central intermediate benzoyl-CoA. Decarboxylases acting on the three PA CoA thioesters belong to the UbiD enzyme family that harbour a prenylated flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor to achieve the mechanistically challenging decarboxylation. Capture of the extremely instable PA-CoA intermediate is accomplished by a massive overproduction of phthaloyl-CoA decarboxylase and a balanced production of PA-CoA forming/decarboxylating enzymes. The strategy of anaerobic phthalate degradation probably represents a snapshot of an ongoing evolution of a xenobiotic degradation pathway via a short-lived reaction intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Boll
- Faculty of Biology, Microbiology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Robin Geiger
- Faculty of Biology, Microbiology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Madan Junghare
- Department of Biology and Microbial Ecology, University of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
| | - Bernhard Schink
- Department of Biology and Microbial Ecology, University of Konstanz, Constance, Germany
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3
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Junghare M, Spiteller D, Schink B. Anaerobic degradation of xenobiotic isophthalate by the fermenting bacterium Syntrophorhabdus aromaticivorans. ISME JOURNAL 2019; 13:1252-1268. [PMID: 30647456 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-019-0348-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Syntrophorhabdus aromaticivorans is a syntrophically fermenting bacterium that can degrade isophthalate (3-carboxybenzoate). It is a xenobiotic compound which has accumulated in the environment for more than 50 years due to its global industrial usage and can cause negative effects on the environment. Isophthalate degradation by the strictly anaerobic S. aromaticivorans was investigated to advance our understanding of the degradation of xenobiotics introduced into nature, and to identify enzymes that might have ecological significance for bioremediation. Differential proteome analysis of isophthalate- vs benzoate-grown cells revealed over 400 differentially expressed proteins of which only four were unique to isophthalate-grown cells. The isophthalate-induced proteins include a phenylacetate:CoA ligase, a UbiD-like decarboxylase, a UbiX-like flavin prenyltransferase, and a hypothetical protein. These proteins are encoded by genes forming a single gene cluster that putatively codes for anaerobic conversion of isophthalate to benzoyl-CoA. Subsequently, benzoyl-CoA is metabolized by the enzymes of the anaerobic benzoate degradation pathway that were identified in the proteomic analysis. In vitro enzyme assays with cell-free extracts of isophthalate-grown cells indicated that isophthalate is activated to isophthalyl-CoA by an ATP-dependent isophthalate:CoA ligase (IPCL), and subsequently decarboxylated to benzoyl-CoA by a UbiD family isophthalyl-CoA decarboxylase (IPCD) that requires a prenylated flavin mononucleotide (prFMN) cofactor supplied by UbiX to effect decarboxylation. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that IPCD is a novel member of the functionally diverse UbiD family (de)carboxylases. Homologs of the IPCD encoding genes are found in several other bacteria, such as aromatic compound-degrading denitrifiers, marine sulfate-reducers, and methanogenic communities in a terephthalate-degrading reactor. These results suggest that metabolic strategies adapted for degradation of isophthalate and other phthalate are conserved between microorganisms that are involved in the anaerobic degradation of environmentally relevant aromatic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madan Junghare
- Microbial Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany.
| | - Dieter Spiteller
- Chemical Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Bernhard Schink
- Microbial Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, 78457, Konstanz, Germany
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4
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Sawers RG. o-Phthalate derived from plastics’ plasticizers and a bacterium's solution to its anaerobic degradation. Mol Microbiol 2018; 108:595-600. [DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. G. Sawers
- Institute of Biology/Microbiology; Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Kurt-Mothes-Str. 3; Halle (Saale) 06120, Germany
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5
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Singh N, Dalal V, Mahto JK, Kumar P. Biodegradation of phthalic acid esters (PAEs) and in silico structural characterization of mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) hydrolase on the basis of close structural homolog. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2017; 338:11-22. [PMID: 28531656 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.04.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Three bacterial strains capable of degrading phthalates namely Pseudomonas sp. PKDM2, Pseudomonas sp. PKDE1 and Pseudomonas sp. PKDE2 were isolated and characterized for their degradative potential. These strains efficiently degraded 77.4%-84.4% of DMP, 75.0%-75.7% of DEP and 71.7%-74.7% of DEHP, initial amount of each phthalate is 500mgL-1 of each phthalate, after 44h of incubation. GC-MS results reveal the tentative DEHP degradation pathway, where hydrolases mediate the breakdown of DEHP to phthalic acid (PA) via an intermediate MEHP. MEHP hydrolase is a serine hydrolase which is involved in the reduction of the MEHP to PA. The predicted 3D model of MEHP hydrolase from Pseudomonas mosselii was docked with phthalate monoesters (PMEs) such as MEHP, mono-n-hexyl phthalate (MHP), mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and mono-n-ethyl phthalate (MEP), respectively. Docking results show the distance between the carbonyl carbon of respective phthalate monoester and the hydroxyl group of catalytic serine lies in the range of 2.9 to 3.3Å, which is similar to the ES complex of other serine hydrolases. This structural study highlights the interaction and the role of catalytic residues of MEHP hydrolase involved in the biodegradation of PMEs to phthalate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 247667, India
| | - Vikram Dalal
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 247667, India
| | - Jai Krishna Mahto
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 247667, India
| | - Pravindra Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, 247667, India.
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6
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Benjamin S, Pradeep S, Josh MS, Kumar S, Masai E. A monograph on the remediation of hazardous phthalates. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2015; 298:58-72. [PMID: 26004054 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Revised: 05/02/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates or phthalic acid esters are a group of xenobiotic and hazardous compounds blended in plastics to enhance their plasticity and versatility. Enormous quantities of phthalates are produced globally for the production of plastic goods, whose disposal and leaching out into the surroundings cause serious concerns to the environment, biota and human health. Though in silico computational, in vitro mechanistic, pre-clinical animal and clinical human studies showed endocrine disruption, hepatotoxic, teratogenic and carcinogenic properties, usage of phthalates continues due to their cuteness, attractive chemical properties, low production cost and lack of suitable alternatives. Studies revealed that microbes isolated from phthalate-contaminated environmental niches efficiently bioremediate various phthalates. Based upon this background, this review addresses the enumeration of major phthalates used in industry, routes of environmental contamination, evidences for health hazards, routes for in situ and ex situ microbial degradation, bacterial pathways involved in the degradation, major enzymes involved in the degradation process, half-lives of phthalates in environments, etc. Briefly, this handy module would enable the readers, environmentalists and policy makers to understand the impact of phthalates on the environment and the biota, coupled with the concerted microbial efforts to alleviate the burden of ever increasing load posed by phthalates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sailas Benjamin
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Biotechnology Division, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635, India.
| | - Selvanesan Pradeep
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Biotechnology Division, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635, India
| | - Moolakkariyil Sarath Josh
- Enzyme Technology Laboratory, Biotechnology Division, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, Kerala 673 635, India
| | - Sunil Kumar
- Solid and Hazardous Waste Management Division, CSIR-NEERI Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440 020, India
| | - Eiji Masai
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, Nagaoka, Niigata 940-2137, Japan
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7
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Cloning of a dibutyl phthalate hydrolase gene from Acinetobacter sp. strain M673 and functional analysis of its expression product in Escherichia coli. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:2483-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4232-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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8
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Subbotina NM, Kolomytseva MP, Golovleva LA. Metabolism of 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate by strain Rhodococcus opacus 1CP. Microbiology (Reading) 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s0026261712030137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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9
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Patel TR, Jure KG, Jones GA. Catabolism of phloroglucinol by the rumen anaerobe coprococcus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 42:1010-7. [PMID: 16345897 PMCID: PMC244147 DOI: 10.1128/aem.42.6.1010-1017.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A rumen isolate, Coprococcus, sp. Pe(1)5, was found to carry phloroglucinol reductase, which catalyzed the initial step in the breakdown of phloroglucinol. The organism uses phloroglucinol as the sole source of carbon and energy when grown in the absence of oxygen. Induced levels of enzyme were detected in cells grown either on phloroglucinol or on other carbon sources in the presence of limiting quantities of phloroglucinol. Although the organism is a strict anaerobe, the enzyme from anaerobically grown cells was insensitive to air. The partially purified enzyme required reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate as an electron donor and was specific for phloroglucinol. However, partial enzyme activity (14 to 17%) was also detected in the presence of 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinone but not in the presence of several other phenolic compounds. The enzyme exhibited a higher affinity for phloroglucinol than for reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, with K(m) values of 3.0 x 10 M and 29.0 x 10 M, respectively. The optimum pH for maximal enzyme activity was 7.4, and the molecular weight of the native protein was about 130,000, as determined by the Sephadex gel filtration technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Patel
- Department of Dairy and Food Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada S7N 0W0
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10
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Abstract
Biotransformation of quercetin was examined with a number of bacterial cultures. In the presence of a bacterial culture (Bacillus cereus), quercetin was transformed into two crystalline products, identified as protocatechuic acid and quercetin-3-glucoside (isoquercitrin).
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Affiliation(s)
- K V Rao
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, J. Hillis Miller Health Center, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610
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11
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Abstract
The decarboxylation of phthalic acids was studied with Bacillus sp. strain FO, a marine mixed culture ON-7, and Pseudomonas testosteroni. The mixed culture ON-7, when grown anaerobically on phthalate but incubated aerobically with chloramphenicol, quantitatively converted phthalic acid to benzoic acid. Substituted phthalic acids were also decarboxylated: 4,5-dihydroxyphthalic acid to protocatechuic acid; 4-hydroxyphthalic and 4-chlorophthalic acids to 3-hydroxybenzoic and 3-chlorobenzoic acids, respectively; and 3-fluorophthalic acid to 2-and 3-fluorobenzoic acids. Bacillus sp. strain FO gave similar results except that 4,5-dihydroxyphthalic acid was not metabolized, and both 3- and 4-hydroxybenzoic acids were produced from 4-hydroxyphthalic acid. P. testosteroni decarboxylated 4-hydroxyphthalate (to 3-hydroxybenzoate) and 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate but not phthalic acid and halogenated phthalates. Thus, P. testosteroni and the mixed culture ON-7 possessed 4,5-dihydroxyphthalic acid decarboxylase, previously described in P. testosteroni, that metabolized 4,5-dihydroxyphthalic acid and specifically decarboxylated 4-hydroxyphthalic acid to 3-hydroxybenzoic acid. The mixed culture ON-7 and Bacillus sp. strain FO also possessed a novel decarboxylase that metabolized phthalic acid and halogenated phthalates, but not 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate, and randomly decarboxylated 4-hydroxyphthalic acid. The decarboxylation of phthalic acid is suggested to involve an initial reduction to 1,2-dihydrophthalic acid followed by oxidative decarboxylation to benzoic acid.
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Affiliation(s)
- B F Taylor
- Division of Marine and Atmospheric Chemistry, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, and Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33149-1098
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12
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Chatterjee S, Karlovsky P. Removal of the endocrine disrupter butyl benzyl phthalate from the environment. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 87:61-73. [PMID: 20396882 PMCID: PMC2872021 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2570-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Revised: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), an aryl alkyl ester of 1,2-benzene dicarboxylic acid, is extensively used in vinyl tiles and as a plasticizer in PVC in many commonly used products. BBP, which readily leaches from these products, is one of the most important environmental contaminants, and the increased awareness of its adverse effects on human health has led to a dramatic increase in research aimed at removing BBP from the environment via bioremediation. This review highlights recent progress in the degradation of BBP by pure and mixed bacterial cultures, fungi, and in sludge, sediment, and wastewater. Sonochemical degradation, a unique abiotic remediation technique, and photocatalytic degradation are also discussed. The degradation pathways for BBP are described, and future research directions are considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhankar Chatterjee
- Molecular Phytopathology and Mycotoxin Research Unit, University of Goettingen, Grisebachstrasse 6, 37077 Goettingen, Germany.
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13
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Yam KC, van der Geize R, Eltis LD. Catabolism of Aromatic Compounds and Steroids by Rhodococcus. BIOLOGY OF RHODOCOCCUS 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-12937-7_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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14
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Midtvedt T, Lindstedt G. Metabolism of thalidomide in Pseudomonas aeruginosa NCTC A 7244. ACTA PATHOLOGICA ET MICROBIOLOGICA SCANDINAVICA. SECTION B: MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY 2009; 78:488-94. [PMID: 4991992 DOI: 10.1111/j.1699-0463.1970.tb04332.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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15
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Martin RE, Baker PB, Ribbons DW. Biotransformations Of Fluoroaromatic Compounds: Accumulation Of Hydroxylated Products From 3-Fluorophthalic Acid Using Mutant Strains OfPseudomonas Testosteroni. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.3109/10242428709040129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert E. Martin
- Biotechnology Research Group, Laboratory of the Government Chemist, Cornwall House, Waterloo Road, London SE1 8XY, England, UK
| | - Peter B. Baker
- Biotechnology Research Group, Laboratory of the Government Chemist, Cornwall House, Waterloo Road, London SE1 8XY, England, UK
| | - Douglas W. Ribbons
- Centre for Biotechnology, Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, London SW7 2AZ, England, UK
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16
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Goto M, Hayashi H, Miyahara I, Hirotsu K, Yoshida M, Oikawa T. Crystal structures of nonoxidative zinc-dependent 2,6-dihydroxybenzoate (gamma-resorcylate) decarboxylase from Rhizobium sp. strain MTP-10005. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:34365-73. [PMID: 16963440 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m607270200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Reversible 2,6-dihydroxybenzoate decarboxylase from Rhizobium sp. strain MTP-10005 belongs to a nonoxidative decarboxylase family. We have determined the structures of the following three forms of the enzyme: the native form, the complex with the true substrate (2,6-dihydroxybenzoate), and the complex with 2,3-dihydroxybenzaldehyde at 1.7-, 1.9-, and 1.7-A resolution, respectively. The enzyme exists as a tetramer, and the subunit consists of one (alphabeta)8 triose-phosphate isomerase-barrel domain with three functional linkers and one C-terminal tail. The native enzyme possesses one Zn2+ ion liganded by Glu8, His10, His164, Asp287, and a water molecule at the active site center, although the enzyme has been reported to require no cofactor for its catalysis. The substrate carboxylate takes the place of the water molecule and is coordinated to the Zn2+ ion. The 2-hydroxy group of the substrate is hydrogen-bonded to Asp287, which forms a triad together with His218 and Glu221 and is assumed to be the catalytic base. On the basis of the geometrical consideration, substrate specificity is uncovered, and the catalytic mechanism is proposed for the novel Zn2+-dependent decarboxylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Goto
- Department of Biochemistry, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686, Japan
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17
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Cain RB. The metabolism of protocatechuic acid by certain micro-organisms. A reassessment of the evidence for the participation of 2:6-dioxa-3:7-dioxobicyclo[3:3:0]octane as an intermediate. Biochem J 2006; 79:312-6. [PMID: 16748899 PMCID: PMC1205840 DOI: 10.1042/bj0790312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R B Cain
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Leeds
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18
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Mampel J, Providenti MA, Cook AM. Protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase from Comamonas testosteroni T-2: biochemical and molecular properties of a new subgroup within class III of extradiol dioxygenases. Arch Microbiol 2005; 183:130-9. [PMID: 15650824 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-004-0755-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2004] [Revised: 12/01/2004] [Accepted: 12/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Comamonas testosteroni T-2 degraded at least eight aromatic compounds via protocatechuate (PCA), whose extradiol ring cleavage to 2-hydroxy-4-carboxymuconate semialdehyde (HCMS) was catalysed by PCA 4,5-dioxygenase (PmdAB). This inducible, heteromultimeric enzyme was purified. It contained two subunits, alpha (PmdA) and beta (PmdB), and the molecular masses of the denatured proteins were 18 kDa and 31 kDa, respectively. PCA was converted stoichiometrically to HCMS with an apparent K(m) of 55 muM and at a maximum velocity of 1.5 mukat. Structure-activity-relationship analysis by testing 16 related compounds as substrate for purified PmdAB revealed an absolute requirement for the vicinal diol and for the carboxylate group of PCA. Besides PCA, only 5'-hydroxy-PCA (gallate) induced oxygen uptake. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of each subunit was identical to the corresponding sequences in C. testosteroni BR6020, which facilitated sequencing of the pmdAB genes in strain T-2. Small differences in the amino acid sequence had significant effects on enzyme stability. Several homologues of pmdAB were found in sequence databases. Residues involved in substrate binding are highly conserved among the homologues. Their sequences grouped within the class III extradiol dioxygenases. Based on our biochemical and genetic analyses, we propose a new branch of the heteromultimeric enzymes within that class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg Mampel
- Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Konstanz, 78457 Konstanz, Germany.
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19
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Yoshida M, Fukuhara N, Oikawa T. Thermophilic, reversible gamma-resorcylate decarboxylase from Rhizobium sp. strain MTP-10005: purification, molecular characterization, and expression. J Bacteriol 2004; 186:6855-63. [PMID: 15466039 PMCID: PMC522189 DOI: 10.1128/jb.186.20.6855-6863.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We found the occurrence of thermophilic reversible gamma-resorcylate decarboxylase (gamma-RDC) in the cell extract of a bacterium isolated from natural water, Rhizobium sp. strain MTP-10005, and purified the enzyme to homogeneity. The molecular mass of the enzyme was determined to be about 151 kDa by gel filtration, and that of the subunit was 37.5 kDa by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis; in other words, the enzyme was a homotetramer. The enzyme was induced specifically by the addition of gamma-resorcylate to the medium. The enzyme required no coenzyme and did not act on 2,4-dihydroxybenzoate, 2,5-dihydroxybenzoate, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, 3,5-dihydroxybenzoate, 2-hydroxybenzoate, or 3-hydroxybenzoate. It was relatively thermostable to heat treatment, and its half-life at 50 degrees C was estimated to be 122 min; furthermore, it catalyzed the reverse carboxylation of resorcinol. The values of k(cat)/K(m) (mMu(-1) . s(-1)) for gamma-resorcylate and resorcinol at 30 degrees C and pH 7 were 13.4 and 0.098, respectively. The enzyme contains 327 amino acid residues, and sequence identities were found with those of hypothetical protein AGR C 4595p from Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain C58 (96% identity), 5-carboxyvanillate decarboxylase from Sphingomonas paucimobilis (32%), and 2-amino-3-carboxymuconate-6-semialdehyde decarboxylases from Bacillus cereus ATCC 10987 (26%), Rattus norvegicus (26%), and Homo sapiens (25%). The genes (graA [1,230 bp], graB [888 bp], and graC [1,056 bp]) that are homologous to those in the resorcinol pathway also exist upstream and downstream of the gamma-RDC gene. Judging from these results, the resorcinol pathway also exists in Rhizobium sp. strain MTP-10005, and gamma-RDC probably catalyzes a reaction just before the hydroxylase in it does.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Yoshida
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Kansai University, Suita, Osaka-Fu 564-8680, Japan
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20
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Jonsson S, Ejlertsson J, Svensson BH. Behaviour of mono- and diesters of o-phthalic acid in leachates released during digestion of municipal solid waste under landfill conditions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s1093-0191(02)00015-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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21
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Abstract
Several 2-substituted benzoates (including 2-trifluoromethyl-, 2-chloro-, 2-bromo-, 2-iodo-, 2-nitro-, 2-methoxy-, and 2-acetyl-benzoates) were converted by phthalate-grown Arthrobacter keyseri (formerly Micrococcus sp.) 12B to the corresponding 2-substituted 3,4-dihydroxybenzoates (protocatechuates). Because these products lack a carboxyl group at the 2 position, they were not substrates for the next enzyme of the phthalate catabolic pathway, 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate 2-decarboxylase, and accumulated. When these incubations were carried out in iron-containing minimal medium, the products formed colored chelates. This chromogenic response was subsequently used to identify recombinant Escherichia coli strains carrying genes encoding the responsible enzymes, phthalate 3,4-dioxygenase and 3,4-dihydroxy-3,4-dihydrophthalate dehydrogenase, from the 130-kbp plasmid pRE1 of strain 12B. Beginning with the initially cloned 8.14-kbp PstI fragment of pRE824 as a probe to identify recombinant plasmids carrying overlapping fragments, a DNA segment of 33.5 kbp was cloned from pRE1 on several plasmids and mapped using restriction endonucleases. From these plasmids, the sequence of 26,274 contiguous bp was determined. Sequenced DNA included several genetic units: tnpR, pcm operon, ptr genes, pehA, norA fragment, and pht operon, encoding a transposon resolvase, catabolism of protocatechuate (3,4-dihydroxybenzoate), a putative ATP-binding cassette transporter, a possible phthalate ester hydrolase, a fragment of a norfloxacin resistance-like transporter, and the conversion of phthalate to protocatechuate, respectively. Activities of the eight enzymes involved in the catabolism of phthalate through protocatechuate to pyruvate and oxaloacetate were demonstrated in cells or cell extracts of recombinant E. coli strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- R W Eaton
- Gulf Ecology Division, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561, USA.
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22
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Production of 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate by Pseudomonas testosteroni immobilized in alginate gel beads. Biochem Eng J 1999. [DOI: 10.1016/s1369-703x(99)00008-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Chang HK, Zylstra GJ. Novel organization of the genes for phthalate degradation from Burkholderia cepacia DBO1. J Bacteriol 1998; 180:6529-37. [PMID: 9851995 PMCID: PMC107754 DOI: 10.1128/jb.180.24.6529-6537.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia cepacia DBO1 is able to utilize phthalate as the sole source of carbon and energy for growth. Two overlapping cosmid clones containing the genes for phthalate degradation were isolated from this strain. Subcloning and activity analysis localized the genes for phthalate degradation to two separate regions on the cosmid clones. Analysis of the nucleotide sequence of these two regions showed that the genes for phthalate degradation are arranged in at least three transcriptional units. The gene for phthalate dioxygenase reductase (ophA1) is present by itself, while the genes for an inactive transporter (ophD) and 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate decarboxylase (ophC) are linked and the genes for phthalate dioxygenase oxygenase (ophA2) and cis-phthalate dihydrodiol dehydrogenase (ophB) are linked. ophA1 and ophDC are adjacent to each other but are transcribed in opposite directions, while ophA2B is located 4 kb away. The genes for the oxygenase and reductase components of phthalate dioxygenase are located approximately 7 kb away from each other. The gene for the putative phthalate permease contains a frameshift mutation in contrast to genes for other permeases. Strains deleted for ophD are able to transport phthalate into the cell at rates equivalent to that of the wild-type organism, showing that this gene is not required for growth on phthalate.
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Affiliation(s)
- H K Chang
- Biotechnology Center for Agriculture and the Environment, Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901-8520, USA
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24
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DAGLEY S, EVANS WC, RIBBONS DW. New pathways in the oxidative metabolism of aromatic compounds by microorganisms. Nature 1998; 188:560-6. [PMID: 13719300 DOI: 10.1038/188560a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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26
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RIBBONS DW, EVANS WC. Oxidative metabolism of protocatechuic acid by certain soil pseudomonads: a new ring-fission mechanism. Biochem J 1998; 83:482-92. [PMID: 14491821 PMCID: PMC1243584 DOI: 10.1042/bj0830482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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27
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Morawski B, Eaton RW, Rossiter JT, Guoping S, Griengl H, Ribbons DW. 2-Naphthoate catabolic pathway in Burkholderia strain JT 1500. J Bacteriol 1997; 179:115-21. [PMID: 8981987 PMCID: PMC178668 DOI: 10.1128/jb.179.1.115-121.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia strain (JT 1500), able to use 2-naphthoate as the sole source of carbon, was isolated from soil. On the basis of growth characteristics, oxygen uptake experiments, enzyme assays, and detection of intermediates, a degradation pathway of 2-naphthoate is proposed. The features of this pathway are convergent with those for phenanthrene. We propose a pathway for the conversion of 2-naphthoate to 1 mol (each) of pyruvate, succinate, and acetyl coenzyme A and 2 mol of CO2. During growth in the presence of 2-naphthoate, six metabolites were detected by thin-layer chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography, and spectroscopy. 1-Hydroxy-2-naphthoate accumulated in the culture broth during growth on 2-naphthoate. Also, the formation of 2'-carboxybenzalpyruvate, phthalaldehydate, phthalate, protocatechuate, and beta-carboxy-cis,cis-muconic acid was demonstrated. (1R,2S)-cis-1,2-Dihydro-1,2-dihydroxy-2-naphthoate was thus considered an intermediate between 2-naphthoate and 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate, but it was not transformed by whole cells or their extracts. We conclude that this diol is not responsible for the formation of 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate from 2-naphthoate but that one of the other three diastereomers is not eliminated as a potential intermediate for a dehydration reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Morawski
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, SFB Biocatalysis, Technical University Graz, Austria
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28
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Karigar CS, Banji SH, Pujar BG. Degradation of homophthalic acid byAspergillus niger. Curr Microbiol 1993; 27:177-80. [PMID: 23835751 DOI: 10.1007/bf01576017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The fungusAspergillus niger degraded homophthalic acid through the involvement ofo-hydroxyphenylacetic acid and homogentisic acid as the metabolic intermediates. Isolation of intermediates was carried out by extracting the spent medium and by using inhibitor in replacement culture techniques. Metabolites were characterized by various physicochemical methods. Oxygen uptake studies and enzyme investigations also confirmed that the degradation of homophthalic acid follows through these intermediates in the fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Karigar
- Biochemistry Division, Department of Chemistry, Karnatak University, 580 003, Dharwad, India
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29
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Karigar CS, Pujar BG. Metabolic pathway of homophthalic acid in Pseudomonas alcaligenes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1993; 110:59-64. [PMID: 8319896 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1993.tb06295.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
A microorganism capable of degrading homophthalic acid as a sole carbon source was isolated from garden soil. The strain was identified as Pseudomonas alcaligenes. The organism degraded homophthalate by a pathway which involved phenylacetate and p-hydroxyphenylacetate as intermediates. The intermediates have been identified by physico-chemical methods. A tentative pathway for the degradation of homophthalate is proposed based on isolation of intermediates, oxygen uptake studies and presence of enzymes involved in the degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Karigar
- Department of Chemistry, Karnatak University, Dharwad, India
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30
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31
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Ribbons DW, Cass AE, Rossiter JT, Taylor SJ, Woodland MP, Widdowson DA, Williams SR, Baker PB, Martin RE. Biotransformations of fluoroaromatic compounds. J Fluor Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0022-1139(00)81968-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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32
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33
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Purification and characterization of phthalate oxygenase and phthalate oxygenase reductase from Pseudomonas cepacia. J Biol Chem 1987. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)75664-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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34
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Correll CC, Batie CJ, Ballou DP, Ludwig ML. Crystallographic characterization of phthalate oxygenase reductase, an iron-sulfur flavoprotein from Pseudomonas cepacia. J Biol Chem 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)38616-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
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35
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36
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Grbić-Galić D, Young LY. Methane Fermentation of Ferulate and Benzoate: Anaerobic Degradation Pathways. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985; 50:292-7. [PMID: 16346851 PMCID: PMC238618 DOI: 10.1128/aem.50.2.292-297.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The anaerobic biodegradation of ferulate and benzoate in stabilized methanogenic consortia was examined in detail. Up to 99% of the ferulate and 98% of the benzoate were converted to carbon dioxide and methane. Methanogenesis was inhibited with 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid, which reduced the gas production and enhanced the buildup of intermediates. Use of high-performance liquid chromatography and two gas chromatographic procedures yielded identification of the following compounds: caffeate,
p
-hydroxycinnamate, cinnamate, phenylpropionate, phenylacetate, benzoate, and toluene during ferulate degradation; and benzene, cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, cyclohexanecarboxylate, cyclohexanone, 1-methylcyclohexanone, pimelate, adipate, succinate, lactate, heptanoate, caproate, isocaproate, valerate, butyrate, isobutyrate, propionate, and acetate during the degradation of either benzoate or ferulate. Based on the identification of the above compounds, more complete reductive pathways for ferulate and benzoate are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Grbić-Galić
- Department of Civil Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, and Department of Environmental Medicine and Department of Microbiology, New York University Medical Center, New York, New York 10016
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37
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Maruyama K. Purification and properties of gamma-oxalomesaconate hydratase from Pseudomonas ochraceae grown with phthalate. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1985; 128:271-7. [PMID: 3985968 DOI: 10.1016/0006-291x(85)91674-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas ochraceae produced inducibly a hydro-lyase which catalyzes the reversible conversion of gamma-oxalomesaconate into (-)-gamma-oxalocitramalate. The enzyme has been purified to homogeneity from the bacteria grown with phthalate. The enzyme was a dimeric protein (pI=4.9) with a Mr of 68,000 and showed a high specificity for gamma-oxalomesaconate (Km=14 microM) and (-)-gamma-oxalocitramalate (Km=6.4 microM). Equilibrium constant for the hydration of gamma-oxalomesaconate at pH 8.0 and 24 degrees C was 2.5. Various thiols activated the enzyme.
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38
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Pujar BG, Ribbons DW. Phthalate metabolism in Pseudomonas fluorescens PHK: purification and properties of 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate decarboxylase. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985; 49:374-6. [PMID: 3920963 PMCID: PMC238410 DOI: 10.1128/aem.49.2.374-376.1985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas fluorescens PHK uses 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate as the sole carbon source for o-phthalate catabolism. This intermediate is the substrate for a decarboxylase of the pathway yielding protocatechuate. The decarboxylase was purified to homogeneity by an affinity chromatography procedure in which the reaction product, protocatechuate, was used as a ligand. We describe some properties of the enzyme, including its apparent molecular weight of 420,000 as determined by gel filtration and of 66,000 after sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide disc gel electrophoresis, consistent with a hexameric functional protein. The apparent Km for the substrate 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate was 10.4 microM. The characteristics of this enzyme are compared with those described for the isofunctional enzyme from P. testosteroni.
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39
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Abstract
The metabolism of phenanthrene by a gram-negative organism able to use this compound as a sole source of carbon and energy has been examined. 1-Hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid was oxidized by oxygen in a reaction catalyzed by a dioxygenase which was activated by ferrous ions. The stoichiometry of the oxidation and the UV spectrum of the product were consistent with the identification of the product as 2'-carboxybenzalpyruvate. This was confirmed by cleaving the product with a partially purified aldolase to yield 2-carboxybenzaldehyde and pyruvate. A number of enzymes for the metabolism of 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid were induced by growth on phthalate or (less well) by growth on protocatechuate. The latter supported only a slow rate of growth, and this and poor induction may have been due to a slow rate of entry into the cell.
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40
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Abstract
Several strains of Micrococcus have been isolated by enrichment with one of several phthalate esters as sole carbon source. They have been separated into four groups by their esterase content and nutritional characteristics. The catabolic potential for phthalate utilization found in these strains provides further support for designation of the four groups. Pathways for phthalate utilization by 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate and/or 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate and protocatechuate and/or 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate are outlined, which suggests that micrococci possess substantial potential for the catabolism of aromatic compounds.
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41
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Abstract
Micrococcus sp. strain 12B was isolated by enriching for growth with dibutylphthalate as the sole carbon and energy source. A pathway for the metabolism of dibutylphthalate and phthalate by micrococcus sp. strain 12B is proposed: dibutylphthalate leads to monobutylphthalate leads to phthalate leads to 3,4-dihydro-3,4-dihydroxyphthalate leads to 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate leads to protocatechuate (3,4-dihdroxybenzoate). Protocatechuate is metabolized both by the meta-cleavage pathway through 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconic semialdehyde and 4-carboxy-2-hydroxymuconate to pyruvate and oxaloacetate and by the ortho-cleavage pathway to beta-ketoadipate. Dibutylphthalate- and phthalate-grown cells readily oxidized dibutylphthalate, phthalate, 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate, and protocatechuate. Extracts of cells grown with dibutylphthalate or phthalate contained the 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate decarboxylase and the enzymes of the protocatechuater 4,5-meta-cleavage pathway. Extracts of dibutylphthalate-grown cells also contained the protocatechuate ortho-cleavage pathway enzymes. The dibutylphthalate-hydrolyzing esterase and 3,4-dihydroxyphthalate decarboxylase were constitutively synthesized; phthalate-3,4-dioxygenase (and possibly the "dihydrodiol" dehydrogenase) was inducible by phthalate or a metabolite occurring before protocatechuate in the pathway; two protocatechuate oxygenases and subsequent enzymes were inducible by protocatechuate or a subsequent metabolic product. During growth at 37 degrees C, strain 12B gave clones at high frequency that had lost the ability to grow with phthalate esters. One of these nonrevertible mutants, strain 12B-Cl, lacked all of the enzymes required for the metabolism of dibutylphthalate through the protocatechuate meta-cleavage pathway. Enzymes for the metabolism of protocatechuate by the ortho-cleavage pathway were present in this strain grown with p-hydroxybenzoate or protocatechuate.
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42
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43
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Eaton RW, Ribbons DW. The transformation of phthalaldehydate by phthalate-grown Micrococcus strain 12B. Arch Biochem Biophys 1982; 216:289-95. [PMID: 7103509 DOI: 10.1016/0003-9861(82)90213-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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44
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Aftring RP, Taylor BF. Aerobic and anaerobic catabolism of phthalic acid by a nitrate-respiring bacterium. Arch Microbiol 1981. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00411059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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45
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Aftring RP, Chalker BE, Taylor BF. Degradation of Phthalic Acids by Denitrifying, Mixed Cultures of Bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1981; 41:1177-83. [PMID: 16345769 PMCID: PMC243886 DOI: 10.1128/aem.41.5.1177-1183.1981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mixed cultures of bacteria, enriched from aquatic sediments, grew anaerobically on all three isomers of phthalic acid. Each culture grew anaerobically on only one isomer and also grew aerobically on the same isomer. Pure cultures were isolated from the phthalic acid (
o
-phthalic acid) and isophthalic acid (
m
-phthalic acid) enrichments that grew aerobically on phthalic and isophthalic acids. Cell suspension experiments indicated that protocatechuate is an intermediate of aerobic catabolism. Pure cultures which grew aerobically on terephthalic acid (
p
-phthalic acid) could not be isolated from the enrichments, and neither could pure cultures that grew anaerobically on any of the isomers. Cell suspension experiments suggested that separate pathways exist for the aerobic and anaerobic oxidation of phthalic acids. Each enrichment culture used only one phthalic acid isomer under anaerobic conditions, but all isomers were simultaneously adapted for the anaerobic catabolism of benzoate. Cells grown anaerobically on a phthalic acid immediately attacked the isomer under anaerobic conditions, whereas there was a lag before aerobic breakdown occurred, and, for phthalic and terephthalic acids, chloramphenicol stopped aerobic adaptation but had no effect on anaerobic catabolism. This work suggests that phthalic acids are biodegradable in anaerobic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- R P Aftring
- Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33149
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46
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Abstract
Heat evolved during microbial oxidation, expressed as a fraction of total energy available from each compound, was increased by monooxygenase participation. It was less for growth substrate catabolites than for their isomers.
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47
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Healy JB, Young LY, Reinhard M. Methanogenic Decomposition of Ferulic Acid, a Model Lignin Derivative. Appl Environ Microbiol 1980; 39:436-44. [PMID: 16345517 PMCID: PMC291349 DOI: 10.1128/aem.39.2.436-444.1980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferulic acid, a model lignin derivative, was observed to be biodegradable to methane and carbon dioxide under strict anaerobic conditions. This conversion appears to be carried out by a consortium of bacteria similar to that previously described for the methanogenic degradation of benzoic acid. A temporary buildup of acetate in these cultures indicates that it is a likely intermediate and precursor for methane formation. An analog of coenzyme M, 2-bromoethanesulfonic acid (BESA), inhibited gas production and enhanced the buildup of propionate, butyrate, isobutyrate, and isovalerate. Phenylacetate, cinnamate, 3-phenylpropionate, benzoate, cyclohexane carboxylate, adipate, and pimelate were also detected in BESA-inhibited cultures. A pathway is proposed which includes these various acids as possible intermediates in the methanogenic degradation of ferulic acid. This model overlaps previously described benzoic acid degradation pathways, suggesting that this type of anaerobic degradation may be common for aromatic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Healy
- Environmental Engineering and Science, Department of Civil Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305
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48
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Engelhardt G, Wallnöfer PR. Metabolism of Di- and Mono-
n
-Butyl Phthalate by Soil Bacteria. Appl Environ Microbiol 1978; 35:243-6. [PMID: 16345266 PMCID: PMC242819 DOI: 10.1128/aem.35.2.243-246.1978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Di-
n
-butyl phthalate and other dialkyl phthalates are used as carbon sources by three
Nocardia
sp. isolates; mono-
n
-butyl phthalate is used as a carbon source by an
Arthrobacter
sp. isolate and a
Pseudomonas
sp. isolate. The compounds were metabolized in these organisms by hydrolysis to the corresponding monoesters and free phthalic acid. Phthalic acid was then metabolized via protocatechuic acid by 3,4-dioxygenative ring cleavage.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Engelhardt
- Bayerische Landesanstalt für Bodenkultur und Pflanzenbau, Abteilung Pflanzenschutz, Munich, Germany
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49
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Evans WC. Biochemistry of the bacterial catabolism of aromatic compounds in anaerobic environments. Nature 1977; 270:17-22. [PMID: 927513 DOI: 10.1038/270017a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Methods of aerobic degradation of aromatic compounds in the biosphere are well understood, but it is only relatively recently that it has been shown how some bacteria can also degrade these substrates in the absence of molecular oxygen. This occurs by photometabolism (Athiorhodaceae), nitrate respiration (Pseudomonas and Moraxella sp.) and methanogenic fermentation (a consortium) in which the benzene nucleus is first reduced and then cleaved by hydrolysis to yield aliphatic acids for cell growth. These methods may be used by microbial communities to catabolise man-made pollutants.
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50
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Nakazawa T, Hayashi E. Phthalate metabolism in Pseudomonas testosteroni: accumulation of 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate by a mutant strain. J Bacteriol 1977; 131:42-8. [PMID: 873893 PMCID: PMC235388 DOI: 10.1128/jb.131.1.42-48.1977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A mutant strain of Pseudomonas testosteroni blocked in phthalate catabolism converted phthalate into 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate. The latter compound was isolated, and its physical properties were determined. A stoichiometric conversion of the compound to protocatechuate was demonstrated spectrophotometrically with crude extracts of a protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase-deficient mutant. Therefore, phthalate is metabolized through 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate and protocatechuate, which is further degraded by protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase in P. testosteroni. By using several mutants blocked in phthalate catabolism, 4,5-dihydroxyphthalate decarboxylase was shown to be induced by phthalate. A simple spectrophotometric assay for the enzyme is also reported.
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