Recent developments in sustainably sourced protein-based biomaterials

Characterization of Azido-Incorporated Bombyx mori Silk Fibroin as a Drug Carrier Material

Silk fibroin, a natural polymer derived from the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori, exhibits remarkable tensile toughness, broad biocompatibility, and biodegradability. We previously developed azido-incorporated silk fibroin (AzidoSilk) using genetic code expansion. AzidoSilk contains synthetic azido groups that can be selectively attached to any functional molecule in a bioorthogonal manner through click chemistry. Click chemistry provides high yields and minimal byproducts. In this study, AzidoSilk was characterized as a drug carrier material for on-demand drug delivery systems (DDS) because effective drug loading and controllable release by external stimuli can be achieved with AzidoSilk via click chemistry modifications. Fluorescent drug models were immobilized on AzidoSilk film and woven fabric via a UV-sensitive bifunctional linker using click chemistry. Azido-selective immobilization of the drug models was confirmed, and upon irradiation with 365 nm UV light, the drug models were gradually released from the AzidoSilk materials in a time-dependent manner. In another model, kanamycin was immobilized on AzidoSilk fabric via the same UV-sensitive linker, and its antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus was tested. PBS extracts from kanamycin-immobilized AzidoSilk fabrics after UV irradiation showed significant antibacterial activity against S. aureus. These results demonstrate that AzidoSilk can be used as a drug carrier material for on-demand DDS. In this system, changes in linker design can expand the range of external stimuli usable for drug release, depending on the application. AzidoSilk has broadened the scope of chemical modification of silk fibroin to achieve simpler and more reliable drug delivery.

Innovations and challenges in collagen and gelatin production through precision fermentation

Collagen and gelatin are essential biomaterials widely used in industries such as food, cosmetics, healthcare, and pharmaceuticals. Traditionally derived from animal tissues, these proteins are facing growing demand for more sustainable and ethical production methods. Precision fermentation (PF) offers a promising alternative by using genetically engineered microorganisms to produce recombinant collagen and gelatin. This technology not only reduces environmental impact but also ensures consistent quality and higher yields. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of collagen and gelatin production through PF destined for the food sector, exploring key advances in recombinant technologies, synthetic biology, and bioprocess optimization. Challenges such as scaling production, cost-efficiency, and market integration are addressed, alongside emerging solutions for enhancing industrial competitiveness. We also highlight leading companies leveraging PF to drive innovation in the food industry. As PF continues to evolve, future developments are expected to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and expand the applications of recombinant collagen and gelatin, particularly in the food and supplement sectors.

Starch-based bio-membrane for water purification, biomedical waste, and environmental remediation

This review article explores the utilization of starch-based materials as smart materials for the removal of dyes and heavy metals from wastewater, highlighting their cost-effectiveness, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. It addresses the critical need for clean water, emphasizing the contamination caused by industrial activities, such as printing, textile, cosmetic, and leather tanning industries. Starch and its derivatives demonstrate significant potential in water purification technology, effectively removing toxicants through hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, and complexation. The review also discusses the application of starch-based materials in the biomedical field, particularly as drug carriers. Starch-based microspheres, hydrogels, nano-spheres, and nano-composites exhibit sustained drug-release properties and are effective in transporting various drugs, including DOX, quercetin, 5-Fluorouracil, glycyrrhizic acid, paclitaxel, tetracycline hydrochloride, amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, and moxifloxacin. These materials show good antimicrobial activity against a range of pathogens, including C. albicans, E. coli, S. aureus, C. neoformance, B. subtilis, A. niger, A. fumigatus, and A. terreus. While highlighting the significant achievements of starch-based materials, the review also discusses current limitations and areas for future development. Key weaknesses include the need for enhanced adsorption capacities and the challenge of scaling up production for industrial applications. The review concludes by identifying development directions, such as improving functionalization techniques and exploring new applications in water purification and drug delivery systems. This article aims to assist researchers in advancing the field of starch-based materials for environmental and biomedical applications.

Disentangling the Web: An Interdisciplinary Review on the Potential and Feasibility of Spider Silk Bioproduction

The remarkable material properties of spider silk, such as its high toughness and tensile strength combined with its low density, make it a highly sought-after material with myriad applications. In addition, the biological nature of spider silk makes it a promising, potentially sustainable alternative to many toxic or petrochemical-derived materials. Therefore, interest in the heterologous production of spider silk proteins has greatly increased over the past few decades, making recombinant spider silk an important frontier in biomanufacturing. This has resulted in a diversity of potential host organisms, a large space for sequence design, and a variety of downstream processing techniques and product applications for spider silk production. Here, we highlight advances in each of these technical aspects as well as white spaces therein, still ripe for further investigation and discovery. Additionally, industry landscaping, patent analyses, and interviews with Key Opinion Leaders help define both the research and industry landscapes. In particular, we found that though textiles dominated the early products proposed by companies, the versatile nature of spider silk has opened up possibilities in other industries, such as high-performance materials in automotive applications or biomedical therapies. While continuing enthusiasm has imbued scientists and investors alike, many technical and business considerations still remain unsolved before spider silk can be democratized as a high-performance product. We provide insights and strategies for overcoming these initial hurdles, and we highlight the importance of collaboration between academia, industry, and policy makers. Linking technical considerations to business and market entry strategies highlights the importance of a holistic approach for the effective scale-up and commercial viability of spider silk bioproduction.

Natural Regenerative Hydrogels for Wound Healing

Regenerative hydrogels from natural polymers have come forth as auspicious materials for use in regenerative medicine, with interest attributed to their intrinsic biodegradability, biocompatibility, and ability to reassemble the extracellular matrix. This review covers the latest advances in regenerative hydrogels used for wound healing, focusing on their chemical composition, cross-linking mechanisms, and functional properties. Key carbohydrate polymers, including alginate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and polysaccharide gums, including agarose, carrageenan, and xanthan gum, are discussed in terms of their sources, chemical structures and specific properties suitable for regenerative applications. The review further explores the categorization of hydrogels based on ionic charge, response to physiological stimuli (i.e., pH, temperature) and particularized roles in wound tissue self-healing. Various methods of cross-linking used to enhance the mechanical and biological performance of these hydrogels are also examined. By highlighting recent innovations and ongoing challenges, this article intends to give a detailed understanding of natural hydrogels and their potential to revolutionize regenerative medicine and improve patient healing outcomes.

Biomaterials for Protein Delivery: Opportunities and Challenges to Clinical Translation

The development of biomaterials for protein delivery is an emerging field that spans materials science, bioengineering, and medicine. In this review, we highlight the immense potential of protein-delivering biomaterials as therapeutic options and discuss the multifaceted challenges inherent to the field. We address current advancements and approaches in protein delivery that leverage stimuli-responsive materials, harness advanced fabrication techniques like 3D printing, and integrate nanotechnologies for greater targeting and improved stability, efficacy, and tolerability profiles. We also discuss the demand for highly complex delivery systems to maintain structural integrity and functionality of the protein payload. Finally, we discuss barriers to clinical translation, such as biocompatibility, immunogenicity, achieving reliable controlled release, efficient and targeted delivery, stability issues, scalability of production, and navigating the regulatory landscape for such materials. Overall, this review summarizes insights from a survey of the current literature and sheds light on the interplay between innovation and the practical implementation of biomaterials for protein delivery.

Sustainable Sources of Raw Materials for Additive Manufacturing of Bone-Substituting Biomaterials

The need for sustainable development has never been more urgent, as the world continues to struggle with environmental challenges, such as climate change, pollution, and dwindling natural resources. The use of renewable and recycled waste materials as a source of raw materials for biomaterials and tissue engineering is a promising avenue for sustainable development. Although tissue engineering has rapidly developed, the challenges associated with fulfilling the increasing demand for bone substitutes and implants remain unresolved, particularly as the global population ages. This review provides an overview of waste materials, such as eggshells, seashells, fish residues, and agricultural biomass, that can be transformed into biomaterials for bone tissue engineering. While the development of recycled metals is in its early stages, the use of probiotics and renewable polymers to improve the biofunctionalities of bone implants is highlighted. Despite the advances of additive manufacturing (AM), studies on AM waste-derived bone-substitutes are limited. It is foreseeable that AM technologies can provide a more sustainable alternative to manufacturing biomaterials and implants. The preliminary results of eggshell and seashell-derived calcium phosphate and rice husk ash-derived silica can likely pave the way for more advanced applications of AM waste-derived biomaterials for sustainably addressing several unmet clinical applications.

Plant Protein-Peptide Supramolecular Polymers with Reliable Tissue Adhesion for Surgical Sealing

The fusion of protein science and peptide science opens up new frontiers in creating innovative biomaterials. Herein, a new kind of adhesive soft materials based on a natural occurring plant protein and short peptides via a simple co-assembly route are explored. The hydrophobic zein is supercharged by sodium dodecyl sulfate to form a stable protein colloid, which is intended to interact with charge-complementary short peptides via multivalent ionic and hydrogen bonds, forming adhesive materials at macroscopic level. The adhesion performance of the resulting soft materials can be fine-manipulated by customizing the peptide sequences. The adhesive materials can resist over 78 cmH2 O of bursting pressure, which is high enough to meet the sealing requirements of dural defect. Dural sealing and repairing capability of the protein-peptide biomaterials are further identified in rat and rabbit models. In vitro and in vivo assays demonstrate that the protein-peptide adhesive shows excellent anti-swelling property, low cell cytotoxicity, hemocompatibility, and inflammation response. In particular, the protein-peptide supramolecular biomaterials can in vivo dissociate and degrade within two weeks, which can well match with the time-window of the dural repairing. This work underscores the versatility and availability of the supramolecular toolbox in the easy-to-implement fabrication of protein-peptide biomaterials.

Column-free purification of an artificial protein nanocage, TIP60

Protein nanocages, which have inner cavities and surface pores, are attractive materials for various applications, such as in catalysts and medicine. Recently, we produced an artificial protein nanocage, TIP60, and demonstrated its potential as a stimuli-responsive nanocarrier. In the present study, we report a simple purification method for TIP60 that can replace time-consuming and costly affinity chromatography purification. TIP60, which has an anionic surface charge, aggregated at mildly acidic pH and redissolved at neutral pH, maintaining its cage structure. This pH-responsive reversible precipitation allowed us to purify TIP60 from soluble fractions of the E. coli cell lysate by controlling the pH. Compared with conventional Ni-NTA column purification, the pH-responsive precipitation method provided purified TIP60 with similar purity (∼80%) and higher yield. This precipitation purification method should facilitate the large-scale investigation and practical use of TIP60 nanocages.

Peptidomics

Peptides are biopolymers, typically consisting of 2-50 amino acids. They are biologically produced by the cellular ribosomal machinery or by non-ribosomal enzymes and, sometimes, other dedicated ligases. Peptides are arranged as linear chains or cycles, and include post-translational modifications, unusual amino acids and stabilizing motifs. Their structure and molecular size render them a unique chemical space, between small molecules and larger proteins. Peptides have important physiological functions as intrinsic signalling molecules, such as neuropeptides and peptide hormones, for cellular or interspecies communication, as toxins to catch prey or as defence molecules to fend off enemies and microorganisms. Clinically, they are gaining popularity as biomarkers or innovative therapeutics; to date there are more than 60 peptide drugs approved and more than 150 in clinical development. The emerging field of peptidomics comprises the comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analysis of the suite of peptides in a biological sample (endogenously produced, or exogenously administered as drugs). Peptidomics employs techniques of genomics, modern proteomics, state-of-the-art analytical chemistry and innovative computational biology, with a specialized set of tools. The complex biological matrices and often low abundance of analytes typically examined in peptidomics experiments require optimized sample preparation and isolation, including in silico analysis. This Primer covers the combination of techniques and workflows needed for peptide discovery and characterization and provides an overview of various biological and clinical applications of peptidomics.

Wild Silkworm Cocoon Waste Conversion into Tough Regenerated Silk Fibers by Solution Spinning

Wild silkworm silk fibers have garnered attention owing to their softness, natural color, lightweight, and excellent mechanical properties. Because most wild silkworm cocoons obtained are pierced or dirty after the eclosion process, it is difficult to reel the long filament from the pierced cocoons to use as textile materials. Therefore, damaged wild silkworm cocoons are typically removed during the industrial process. Artificial silk spinning has been developed to transform domesticated silkworm silk solutions into regenerated silk fibers. However, regenerated fibers derived from wild silkworm silk have not been reported. Here, we produced regenerated silk fibers using a dry-wet spinning method using a dope solution derived from wild silkworm silk cocoon wastes. These regenerated silk fibers have thick and uniform diameters, unlike native silk fibers, contributing to their usefulness for sterilization and handling in medical applications. Moreover, they exhibited the same level of mechanical strength as their native counterparts. The molecular orientation and crystallinity of the regenerated silk fibers were adjustable by the drawing process, enabling the realization of their various tensile properties. This study promotes the utilization of unused protein resources to produce mechanically stable and tough silk-based fibers.

Collagen and Silk Fibroin as Promising Candidates for Constructing Catalysts

A catalyst determines the mechanism of an organic chemical reaction, thus enabling the commercially viable formation of desired material products. Biopolymers offer new opportunities for the construction of catalysts by virtue of their biocompatibility, environmental benignity, and sustainability, as well as their low cost. Biopolymers are especially useful as carriers and precursors in catalysis application. The employment of biocompatible and biosustainable collagen and silk fibroin materials will revolutionize state-of-the-art electronic devices and systems that currently rely on conventional technologies. In this review, we first consider the ordered hierarchical structure, origin, and processing methods of collagen and silk fibroin. Then, the unique advantages and applicability of collagen and silk fibroin for constructing catalysts are summarized. Moreover, a summary of the state-of-the-art design, fabrication, and application of collagen- and silk fibroin-based catalysts, as well as the application of collagen- and silk-based catalysts, is presented by focusing on their roles as carriers and precursors, respectively. Finally, challenges and prospects are assessed for the construction and development of collagen and silk fibroin-based catalysts.

Cell Adhesion Behaviors on Spider Silk Fibers, Films, and Nanofibers

Silk-based materials have garnered attention for use as medical supplies due to their mechanical toughness and low cytotoxicity. Silkworm silk has been applied as surgical sutures for decades. In contrast, the utilization of spider silk is limited mainly because of its scarcity. Although the biomimicry of spider silk has been developed using recombinant protein expression systems with the use of genetic engineering, the product often results in lower molecular weight and a lack of the N- or C-terminal regions. The incomplete sequence of the spider silk-like protein prevents the objective evaluation of the native spider silk as a medical application and retards the development of spider silk-inspired materials. Here, we reeled the native spider silk directly from live spiders and investigated the cell adhesion behavior based on three kinds of surface topography of spider silk-based substrates, namely, fibers, films, and non-woven fabrics. The cell adhesion behavior was largely influenced by the surface micro/nanostructure rather than the wettability of the surface. This study will contribute to promote the utilization of spider silk in the medical field as a candidate for promising bio-based fibers in the context of sustainable development goals.

Protein by-products: Composition, extraction, and biomedical applications

Significant upsurge in animal by-products such as skin, bones, wool, hides, feathers, and fats has become a global challenge and, if not properly disposed of, can spread contamination and viral diseases. Animal by-products are rich in proteins, which can be used as nutritional, pharmacologically functional ingredients, and biomedical materials. Therefore, recycling these abundant and renewable by-products and extracting high value-added components from them is a sustainable approach to reclaim animal by-products while addressing scarce landfill resources. This article appraises the most recent studies conducted in the last five years on animal-derived proteins' separation and biomedical application. The effort encompasses an introduction about the composition, an overview of the extraction and purification methods, and the broad range of biomedical applications of these ensuing proteins.

Eri silkworm spins mechanically robust silk fibers regardless of reeling speed

Wild silkworms survive in the environmental habitats in which temperature and humidity vary based on weather. In contrast, domesticated silkworms live in mild environments where temperature and humidity are generally maintained at constant levels. Previous studies showed that the mechanical strengths and molecular orientation of the silk fibers reeled from domesticated silkworms are significantly influenced by the reeling speed. Here we investigated the effects of the reeling speeds on the mechanical properties of eri silk fibers produced by wild silkworms, Samia cynthia ricini, which belong to the family of Saturniidae. We found that the structural, morphological, and mechanical features of eri silk fibers are maintained irrespective of the reeling speed in contrast to those of domesticated silkworm silk fibers. The obtained results are useful not only for understanding the biological basis underlying the natural formation of silk fibers but also for contributing to the design of artificial spinning systems for producing synthetic silk fibers.

Emergent Proteins-Based Structures-Prospects towards Sustainable Nutrition and Functionality

The increased pressure over soils imposed by the need for agricultural expansion and food production requires development of sustainable and smart strategies for the efficient use of resources and food nutrients. In accordance with worldwide transformative polices, it is crucial to design sustainable systems for food production aimed at reducing environmental impact, contributing to biodiversity preservation, and leveraging a bioeconomy that supports circular byproduct management. Research on the use of emergent protein sources to develop value-added foods and biomaterials is in its infancy. This review intends to summarize recent research dealing with technological functionality of underused protein fractions, recovered from microbial biomass and food waste sources, addressing their potential applications but also bottlenecks. Protein-based materials from dairy byproducts and microalgae biomass gather promising prospects of use related to their techno-functional properties. However, a balance between yield and functionality is needed to turn this approach profitable on an industrial scale basis. In this context, downstream processing should be strategically used and properly integrated. Food solutions based on microbial proteins will expand in forthcoming years, bringing the opportunity to finetune development of novel protein-based biomaterials.