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Senji Laxme RR, Khochare S, Bhatia S, Martin G, Sunagar K. From birth to bite: the evolutionary ecology of India's medically most important snake venoms. BMC Biol 2024; 22:161. [PMID: 39075553 PMCID: PMC11287890 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-024-01960-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Snake venoms can exhibit remarkable inter- and intraspecific variation. While diverse ecological and environmental factors are theorised to explain this variation, only a handful of studies have attempted to unravel their precise roles. This knowledge gap not only impedes our understanding of venom evolution but may also have dire consequences on snakebite treatment. To address this shortcoming, we investigated the evolutionary ecology of venoms of Russell's viper (Daboia russelii) and spectacled cobra (Naja naja), India's two clinically most important snakes responsible for an alarming number of human deaths and disabilities. METHODOLOGY Several individuals (n = 226) of D. russelii and N. naja belonging to multiple clutches (n = 9) and their mothers were maintained in captivity to source ontogenetic stage-specific venoms. Using various in vitro and in vivo assays, we assessed the significance of prey, ontogeny and sex in driving venom composition, function, and potency. RESULTS Considerable ontogenetic shifts in venom profiles were observed in D. russelii, with the venoms of newborns being many times as potent as juveniles and adults against mammalian (2.3-2.5 ×) and reptilian (2-10 ×) prey. This is the first documentation of the ontogenetic shift in viperine snakes. In stark contrast, N. naja, which shares a biogeographic distribution similar to D. russelii, deployed identical biochemical cocktails across development. Furthermore, the binding kinetics of cobra venom toxins against synthetic target receptors from various prey and predators shed light on the evolutionary arms race. CONCLUSIONS Our findings, therefore, provide fascinating insights into the roles of ecology and life history traits in shaping snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Senji Laxme
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Suyog Khochare
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Siddharth Bhatia
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, Karnataka, India
| | - Gerard Martin
- The Liana Trust. Survey, #1418/1419 Rathnapuri, Hunsur, 571189, Karnataka, India
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Evolutionary Venomics Lab, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560012, Karnataka, India.
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2
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Robinson KE, Moniz HA, Stokes AN, Feldman CR. Where Does All the Poison Go? Investigating Toxicokinetics of Newt (Taricha) Tetrodotoxin (TTX) in Garter Snakes (Thamnophis). J Chem Ecol 2024:10.1007/s10886-024-01517-7. [PMID: 38842636 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-024-01517-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Animals that consume toxic diets provide models for understanding the molecular and physiological adaptations to ecological challenges. Garter snakes (Thamnophis) in western North America prey on Pacific newts (Taricha), which employ tetrodotoxin (TTX) as an antipredator defense. These snakes possess mutations in voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav), the molecular targets of TTX, that decrease the binding ability of TTX to sodium channels (target-site resistance). However, genetic variation at these loci that cannot explain all the phenotypic variation in TTX resistance in Thamnophis. We explored a separate means of resistance, toxin metabolism, to determine if TTX-resistant snakes either rapidly remove TTX or sequester TTX. We examined the metabolism and distribution of TTX in the body (toxicokinetics), to determine differences between TTX-resistant and TTX-sensitive snakes in the rates at which TTX is eliminated from organs and the whole body (using TTX half-life as our metric). We assayed TTX half-life in snakes from TTX-resistant and TTX-sensitive populations of three garter snake species with a coevolutionary history with newts (T. atratus, T. couchii, T. sirtalis), as well as two non-resistant "outgroup" species (T. elegans, Pituophis catenifer) that seldom (if ever) engage newts. We found TTX half-life varied across species, populations, and tissues. Interestingly, TTX half-life was shortest in T. elegans and P. catenifer compared to all other snakes. Furthermore, TTX-resistant populations of T. couchii and T. sirtalis eliminated TTX faster (shorter TTX half-life) than their TTX-sensitive counterparts, while populations of TTX-resistant and TTX-sensitive T. atratus showed no difference rates of TTX removal (same TTX half-life). The ability to rapidly eliminate TTX may have permitted increased prey consumption, which may have promoted the evolution of additional resistance mechanisms. Finally, snakes still retain substantial amounts of TTX, and we projected that snakes could be dangerous to their own predators days to weeks following the ingestion of a single newt. Thus, aspects of toxin metabolism may have been key in driving predator-prey relationships, and important in determining other ecological interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E Robinson
- Department of Biology and Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, USA.
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.
| | - Haley A Moniz
- Department of Biology and Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, USA
| | - Amber N Stokes
- Department of Biology, California State University Bakersfield, Bakersfield, CA, USA
| | - Chris R Feldman
- Department of Biology and Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, NV, USA
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
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3
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Kornilev YV, Natchev ND, Lillywhite HB. Perils of ingesting harmful prey by advanced snakes. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:263-283. [PMID: 36192825 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The advanced snakes (Alethinophidia) include the extant snakes with a highly evolved head morphology providing increased gape and jaw flexibility. Along with other physiological and morphological adaptations, this allows them to immobilize, ingest, and transport prey that may be disproportionately large or presents danger to the predator from bites, teeth, horns, or spines. Reported incidents of snakes failing to consume prey and being injured or killed during feeding mostly reflect information in the form of natural-history notes. Here we provide the first extensive review of such incidents, including 101 publications describing at least 143 cases of mortality (including six of 'multiple individuals') caused by ingestion or attempted consumption of injurious prey. We also report on 15 previously unpublished injurious feeding incidents from the USA, Austria, and Bulgaria, including mortality of five juvenile piscivorous dice snakes (Natrix tessellata) from a single location. Occurrences are spread across taxa, with mortality documented for at least 73 species from eight families and 45 genera. Incidents were generally well represented within each of three major categories: oversized prey (40.6%), potentially harmful prey (40.6%), and predator's behavioural/mechanical errors (18.9%). Reptile (33%) and fish (26%) prey caused disproportionately high mortality compared to mammals (16%). Feeding can be dangerous throughout a snake's life, with the later stages of feeding likely being more perilous. The number of reports has increased over time, and the data seem biased towards localities with a higher number of field-working herpetologists. We propose a standardized framework, comprising a set of basic information that should ideally be collected and published, and which could be useful as a template for future data collection, reporting, and analyses. We conclude that incidents of mortality during feeding are likely to be more common than previously assumed, and this hypothesis has implications for the ecology of persistence where populations are impacted by changing trophic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurii V Kornilev
- Vertebrates Department, National Museum of Natural History, Sofia, 1 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd, 1000, Sofia, Bulgaria.,Unit for Integrative Zoology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, Vienna University, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nikolay D Natchev
- Unit for Integrative Zoology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, Vienna University, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria.,Faculty of Natural Science, Shumen University, 115 Universitetska Street, 9700, Shumen, Bulgaria
| | - Harvey B Lillywhite
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8525, USA
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Asato H, Sueyoshi K, Nakagawa M, Sugawara R, Kadota Y, Kawauchi N, Kobayashi S, Izawa M, Toda M. Food Habits of the Taiwan Beauty Snake, Elaphe taeniura friesi, as an Introduced Species on Okinawajima Island. CURRENT HERPETOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.5358/hsj.41.205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Asato
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa 903–0213, JAPAN
| | - Kosuke Sueyoshi
- Okinawa Prefecture Environment Science Center, 720 Kyozuka, Urasoe, Okinawa 901–2111, JAPAN
| | | | - Ryo Sugawara
- Yachiyo Engineering, 3–21–1 Kumoji, Naha, Okinawa 900–0015, JAPAN
| | | | - Norihiro Kawauchi
- Island Wildlife Laboratory, 587–1–402 Goga, Nago, Okinawa 905–1154, JAPAN
| | - Shun Kobayashi
- Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa 903–0213, JAPAN
| | - Masako Izawa
- Kitakyushu Museum of Natural History & Human History, 2–4–1 Higashida, Yahatahigashi, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka 805–0071, JAPAN
| | - Mamoru Toda
- Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa 903–0213, JAPAN
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Broussard AA, Hoffman JD, Lyons EK, LeMieux F. Comparison of the Relative Abundance of Potential Prey to the Diet of the Louisiana Pine Snake (Pituophis ruthveni). SOUTHEAST NAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1656/058.021.0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa A. Broussard
- Harold and Pearl Dripps School of Agricultural Sciences, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, LA 70605
| | - Justin D. Hoffman
- Department of Biology, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, LA 70605
| | - Eddie K. Lyons
- Harold and Pearl Dripps School of Agricultural Sciences, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, LA 70605
| | - Frederick LeMieux
- Harold and Pearl Dripps School of Agricultural Sciences, McNeese State University, Lake Charles, LA 70605
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Johnson NB, Poulin RG, Somers CM. Thermoregulation by bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi): do burrows make life easier on the prairies? CAN J ZOOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2021-0191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Reptiles living in the grasslands of Western Canada cope with extremely variable environmental temperatures. We studied body temperatures (Tb) and operative environmental temperatures (Te) for bullsnakes (Pituophis catenifer sayi Schlegel, 1837) to address uncertainties regarding challenges posed by the thermal environments of northern grasslands, and to evaluate conflicting hypotheses regarding thermoregulatory strategies. Despite potentially extreme surface temperatures (x̄min = 9.3, x̄max = 31.4°C), mammal burrows remained within voluntary limits (15 – 35°C) for 93 % of the active season and created thermal gradients (up to 27.2°C) which may facilitate thermoregulation by creating high thermal heterogeneity. This evidence suggests that grasslands may actually be less challenging for thermoregulation than comparable forests. 57.8 % of the variation in observed Tb (x̄min = 20.1, x̄max = 29.1°C) was explained by 3 simple variables: time of day, day of year, and bare ground Te. Bullsnakes thermoregulated by conforming to Te near their preferred range (21 to 27°C), selecting locations that enabled heating up below this range, and avoiding warmth above this range. Our results support broad hypotheses of reptilian thermoregulation that predict increased thermoregulation when a) environmental temperatures deviate further from preferred ranges and b) costs of thermoregulation are lower due to thermal heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ray G. Poulin
- Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Life Sciences, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - C. M. Somers
- Department of Biology, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, S4S 0A2,
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Dallas J, Meshaka WE, Delis PR. Evidence of Intraguild Predation in a Snake Assemblage: Bigger Seems Better. Northeast Nat (Steuben) 2021. [DOI: 10.1656/045.028.0302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason Dallas
- Department of Biology, Shippensburg University, 1871 Old Main Drive, Shippensburg, PA 17257
| | - Walter E. Meshaka
- Section of Zoology and Botany, State Museum of Pennsylvania, 300 North Street, Harrisburg, PA 17120
| | - Pablo R. Delis
- Department of Biology, Shippensburg University, 1871 Old Main Drive, Shippensburg, PA 17257
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8
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Bowman CE. Feeding design in free-living mesostigmatid chelicerae (Acari: Anactinotrichida). EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2021; 84:1-119. [PMID: 33929649 PMCID: PMC8085810 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-021-00612-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A model based upon mechanics is used in a re-analysis of historical acarine morphological work augmented by an extra seven zoophagous mesostigmatid species. This review shows that predatory mesostigmatids do have cheliceral designs with clear rational purposes. Almost invariably within an overall body size class, the switch in predatory style from a worm-like prey feeding ('crushing/mashing' kill) functional group to a micro-arthropod feeding ('active prey cutting/slicing/slashing' kill) functional group is matched by: an increased cheliceral reach, a bigger chelal gape, a larger morphologically estimated chelal crunch force, and a drop in the adductive lever arm velocity ratio of the chela. Small size matters. Several uropodines (Eviphis ostrinus, the omnivore Trachytes aegrota, Urodiaspis tecta and, Uropoda orbicularis) have more elongate chelicerae (greater reach) than their chelal gape would suggest, even allowing for allometry across mesostigmatids. They may be: plesiosaur-like high-speed strikers of prey, scavenging carrion feeders (like long-necked vultures), probing/burrowing crevice feeders of cryptic nematodes, or small morsel/fragmentary food feeders. Some uropodoids have chelicerae and chelae which probably work like a construction-site mechanical excavator-digger with its small bucket. Possible hoeing/bulldozing, spore-cracking and tiny sabre-tooth cat-like striking actions are discussed for others. Subtle changes lead small mesostigmatids to be predator-scavengers (mesocarnivores) or to be predator-fungivores (hypocarnivores). Some uropodines (e.g., the worm-like prey feeder Alliphis siculus and, Uropoda orbicularis) show chelae similar in design to astigmatids and cryptostigmatids indicating possible facultative saprophagy. Scale matters-obligate predatory designs (hypercarnivory) start for mesostigmatids with chelal gape > 150 μm and cheliceral reach > 350 μm (i.e., about 500-650 μm in body size). Commonality of trophic design in these larger species with solifugids is indicated. Veigaia species with low chelal velocity ratio and other morphological strengthening specialisms, appear specially adapted in a concerted way for predating active soft and fast moving springtails (Collembola). Veigaia cerva shows a markedly bigger chelal gape than its cheliceral reach would proportionately infer suggesting it is a crocodile-like sit-and-wait or ambush predator par excellence. A small chelal gape, low cheliceral reach, moderate velocity ratio variant of the worm-like feeding habit design is supported for phytoseiid pollenophagy. Evidence for a resource partitioning model in the evolution of gnathosomal development is found. A comparison to crustacean claws and vertebrate mandibles is made. Alliphis siculus and Rhodacarus strenzkei are surprisingly powerful mega-cephalics for their small size. Parasitids show a canid-like trophic design. The chelicera of the nematophagous Alliphis halleri shows felid-like features. Glyphtholaspis confusa has hyaena-like cheliceral dentition. The latter species has a markedly smaller chelal gape than its cheliceral reach would suggest proportionately, which together with a high chelal velocity ratio and a high estimated chelal crunch force matches a power specialism of feeding on immobile tough fly eggs/pupae by crushing (durophagy). A consideration of gnathosomal orientation is made. Predatory specialisms appear to often match genera especially in larger mesostigmatids, which may scale quite differently. Comparison to holothyrids and opilioacarids indicates that the cheliceral chelae of the former are cutting-style and those of the latter are crushing-style. A simple validated easy-to-use '2:1 on' predictive algorithm of feeding habit type is included based on a strength-speed tradeoff in chelal velocity ratio for ecologists to test in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clive E Bowman
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX2 6GG, UK.
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Carbajal-Márquez RA, Cedeño-Vázquez JR, González-Solís D, Martins M. Diet and Feeding Ecology of Crotalus tzabcan (Serpentes: Viperidae). SOUTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HERPETOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.2994/sajh-d-17-00081.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rubén A. Carbajal-Márquez
- Departamento de Sistemática y Ecología Acuática, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, unidad Chetumal, Av. Centenario km 5.5, Chetumal, 77014, Quintana Roo, Mexico
| | - J. Rogelio Cedeño-Vázquez
- Departamento de Sistemática y Ecología Acuática, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, unidad Chetumal, Av. Centenario km 5.5, Chetumal, 77014, Quintana Roo, Mexico
| | - David González-Solís
- Departamento de Sistemática y Ecología Acuática, El Colegio de la Frontera Sur, unidad Chetumal, Av. Centenario km 5.5, Chetumal, 77014, Quintana Roo, Mexico
| | - Marcio Martins
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de São Paulo, CEP 05508‑090, São Paulo 1146, Brazil
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McIntire SE, Rabon JC, Coates PS, Ricca MA, Johnson TN. Greater Sage-Grouse Chick Killed by Great Basin Gopher Snake. WEST N AM NATURALIST 2020. [DOI: 10.3398/064.080.0107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. McIntire
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844
| | - Jordan C. Rabon
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844
| | - Peter S. Coates
- United States Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, Dixon, CA 95620
| | - Mark A. Ricca
- United States Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, Dixon, CA 95620
| | - Tracey N. Johnson
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID 83844
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11
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Sparkman AM, Clark AD, Brummett LJ, Chism KR, Combrink LL, Kabey NM, Schwartz TS. Convergence in reduced body size, head size, and blood glucose in three island reptiles. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:6169-6182. [PMID: 29988440 PMCID: PMC6024148 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many oceanic islands harbor diverse species that differ markedly from their mainland relatives with respect to morphology, behavior, and physiology. A particularly common morphological change exhibited by a wide range of species on islands worldwide involves either a reduction in body size, termed island dwarfism, or an increase in body size, termed island gigantism. While numerous instances of dwarfism and gigantism have been well documented, documentation of other morphological changes on islands remains limited. Furthermore, we lack a basic understanding of the physiological mechanisms that underlie these changes, and whether they are convergent. A major hypothesis for the repeated evolution of dwarfism posits selection for smaller, more efficient body sizes in the context of low resource availability. Under this hypothesis, we would expect the physiological mechanisms known to be downregulated in model organisms exhibiting small body sizes due to dietary restriction or artificial selection would also be downregulated in wild species exhibiting dwarfism on islands. We measured body size, relative head size, and circulating blood glucose in three species of reptiles-two snakes and one lizard-in the California Channel Islands relative to mainland populations. Collating data from 6 years of study, we found that relative to mainland population the island populations had smaller body size (i.e., island dwarfism), smaller head sizes relative to body size, and lower levels of blood glucose, although with some variation by sex and year. These findings suggest that the island populations of these three species have independently evolved convergent physiological changes (lower glucose set point) corresponding to convergent changes in morphology that are consistent with a scenario of reduced resource availability and/or changes in prey size on the islands. This provides a powerful system to further investigate ecological, physiological, and genetic variables to elucidate the mechanisms underlying convergent changes in life history on islands.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda D. Clark
- Department of Biological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabama
| | | | | | | | - Nicole M. Kabey
- Department of BiologyWestmont CollegeSanta BarbaraCalifornia
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12
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Reiserer RS, Schuett GW, Greene HW. Seed ingestion and germination in rattlesnakes: overlooked agents of rescue and secondary dispersal. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2017.2755. [PMID: 29436500 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Seed dispersal is a key evolutionary process and a central theme in the population ecology of terrestrial plants. The primary producers of most land-based ecosystems are propagated by and maintained through various mechanisms of seed dispersal that involve both abiotic and biotic modes of transportation. By far the most common biotic seed transport mechanism is zoochory, whereby seeds, or fruits containing them, are dispersed through the activities of animals. Rodents are one group of mammals that commonly prey on seeds (granivores) and play a critical, often destructive, role in primary dispersal and the dynamics of plant communities. In North America, geomyid, heteromyid and some sciurid rodents have specialized cheek pouches for transporting seeds from plant source to larder, where they are often eliminated from the pool of plant propagules by consumption. These seed-laden rodents are commonly consumed by snakes as they forage, but unlike raptors, coyotes, bobcats, and other endothermic predators which eat rodents and are known or implicated to be secondary seed dispersers, the role of snakes in seed dispersal remains unexplored. Here, using museum-preserved specimens, we show that in nature three desert-dwelling rattlesnake species consumed heteromyids with seeds in their cheek pouches. By examining the entire gut we discovered, furthermore, that secondarily ingested seeds can germinate in rattlesnake colons. In terms of secondary dispersal, rattlesnakes are best described as diplochorous. Because seed rescue and secondary dispersal in snakes has yet to be investigated, and because numerous other snake species consume granivorous and frugivorous birds and mammals, our observations offer direction for further empirical studies of this unusual but potentially important channel for seed dispersal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall S Reiserer
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA .,Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM, USA
| | - Gordon W Schuett
- Chiricahua Desert Museum, Rodeo, NM, USA.,Department of Biology and Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Harry W Greene
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Inshaaf Layloo
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, 7535, South Africa
| | - Caitlin Smith
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, 7535, South Africa
| | - Bryan Maritz
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, 7535, South Africa
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14
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Tabata R, Tashiro F, Nishizawa H, Takagi J, Kidera N, Mitamura H. Stomach Contents of Three Sea Kraits (Hydrophiinae: Laticauda spp.) in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. CURRENT HERPETOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.5358/hsj.36.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Runa Tabata
- Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, JAPAN
| | - Fumihito Tashiro
- Maizuru Fisheries Research Station, Field Science Education and Research Center, Kyoto University, Maizuru, Kyoto 625-0086, JAPAN
| | - Hideaki Nishizawa
- Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, JAPAN
| | - Junichi Takagi
- Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, JAPAN
| | - Noriko Kidera
- National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8506, JAPAN
| | - Hiromichi Mitamura
- Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Kyoto 606-8501, JAPAN
- CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama 102-0076, JAPAN
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Mohammadi S, French SS, Neuman-Lee LA, Durham SL, Kojima Y, Mori A, Brodie ED, Savitzky AH. Corticosteroid responses of snakes to toxins from toads (bufadienolides) and plants (cardenolides) reflect differences in dietary specializations. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2017; 247:16-25. [PMID: 28347742 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2017.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Toads are chemically defended by cardiotonic steroids known as bufadienolides. Resistance to the acute effects of bufadienolides in snakes that prey on toads is conferred by target-site insensitivity of the toxin's target enzyme, the Na+/K+-ATPase. Previous studies have focused largely on the molecular mechanisms of resistance but have not investigated the physiological mechanisms or consequences of exposure to the toxins. Adrenal enlargement in snakes often is associated with specialization on a diet of toads. These endocrine glands are partly composed of interrenal tissue, which produces the corticosteroids corticosterone and aldosterone. Corticosterone is the main hormone released in response to stress in reptiles, and aldosterone plays an important role in maintaining ion balance through upregulation of Na+/K+-ATPase. We tested the endocrine response of select species of snakes to acute cardiotonic steroid exposure by measuring circulating aldosterone and corticosterone concentrations. We found that Rhabdophis tigrinus, which specializes on a diet of toads, responds with lower corticosterone and higher aldosterone compared to other species that exhibit target-site resistance to the toxins but do not specialize on toads. We also found differences between sexes in R. tigrinus, with males generally responding with higher corticosterone and aldosterone than females. This study provides evidence of physiological adaptations, beyond target-site resistance, associated with tolerance of bufadienolides in a specialized toad-eating snake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Mohammadi
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, United States; Ecology Center, Utah State University, 5205 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5205, United States.
| | - Susannah S French
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, United States; Ecology Center, Utah State University, 5205 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5205, United States
| | - Lorin A Neuman-Lee
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, United States
| | - Susan L Durham
- Ecology Center, Utah State University, 5205 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5205, United States
| | - Yosuke Kojima
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Akira Mori
- Department of Zoology, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Edmund D Brodie
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, United States; Ecology Center, Utah State University, 5205 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5205, United States
| | - Alan H Savitzky
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, United States; Ecology Center, Utah State University, 5205 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5205, United States
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16
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Glaudas X, Kearney TC, Alexander GJ. Museum Specimens Bias Measures of Snake Diet: A Case Study Using the Ambush-Foraging Puff Adder (Bitis arietans). HERPETOLOGICA 2017. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-16-00055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Glaudas
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, PO Wits, 2050, South Africa
| | - Teresa C. Kearney
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, PO Wits, 2050, South Africa
- Vertebrate Department, Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, PO Box 413, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Graham J. Alexander
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, PO Wits, 2050, South Africa
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17
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Penning DA, Moon BR. The king of snakes: performance and morphology of intraguild predators (Lampropeltis) and their prey (Pantherophis). J Exp Biol 2017; 220:1154-1161. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.147082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Across ecosystems and trophic levels, predators are usually larger than their prey, and when trophic morphology converges, predators typically avoid predation on intraguild competitors unless the prey is notably smaller in size. However, a currently unexplained exception occurs in kingsnakes in the genus Lampropeltis. Kingsnakes are able to capture, constrict and consume other snakes that are not only larger than themselves but that are also powerful constrictors (such as ratsnakes in the genus Pantherophis). Their mechanisms of success as intraguild predators on other constrictors remain unknown. To begin addressing these mechanisms, we studied the scaling of muscle cross-sectional area, pulling force and constriction pressure across the ontogeny of six species of snakes (Lampropeltis californiae, L. getula, L. holbrooki, Pantherophis alleghaniensis, P. guttatus and P. obsoletus). Muscle cross-sectional area is an indicator of potential force production, pulling force is an indicator of escape performance, and constriction pressure is a measure of prey-handling performance. Muscle cross-sectional area scaled similarly for all snakes, and there was no significant difference in maximum pulling force among species. However, kingsnakes exerted significantly higher pressures on their prey than ratsnakes. The similar escape performance among species indicates that kingsnakes win in predatory encounters because of their superior constriction performance, not because ratsnakes have inferior escape performance. The superior constriction performance by kingsnakes results from their consistent and distinctive coil posture and perhaps from additional aspects of muscle structure and function that need to be tested in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Penning
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504-43602, USA
- Department of Biology and Environmental Health, Missouri Southern State University, Joplin, MO 64801, USA
| | - Brad R. Moon
- Department of Biology, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA 70504-43602, USA
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18
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Penning DA. The gluttonous king: the effects of prey size and repeated feeding on predatory performance in kingsnakes. J Zool (1987) 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/jzo.12437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D. A. Penning
- Department of Biology and Environmental Health; Missouri Southern State University; Joplin MO USA
- Department of Biology; University of Louisiana at Lafayette; Lafayette LA USA
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19
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Smith JE, Long DJ, Russell ID, Newcomb KL, Muñoz VD. Otospermophilus beecheyi(Rodentia: Sciuridae). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/mspecies/sew010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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20
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Diet and Foraging Behaviors of Timber Rattlesnakes,Crotalus horridus, in Eastern Virginia. J HERPETOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1670/15-086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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21
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Bishop CA, Williams KE, Kirk DA, Nantel P, Reed E, Elliott JE. A population model of the impact of a rodenticide containing strychnine on Great Basin Gophersnakes (Pituophis catenifer deserticola). ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2016; 25:1390-1405. [PMID: 27437984 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-016-1690-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Strychnine is a neurotoxin and an active ingredient in some rodenticides which are placed in burrows to suppress pocket gopher (Thomomys talpoides) populations in range and crop land in western North America. The population level impact was modelled of the use of strychnine-based rodenticides on a non-target snake species, the Great Basin Gophersnake (Pituophis catenifer deserticola), which is a predator of pocket gopher and a Species at Risk in Canada. Using information on population density, demographics, and movement and habitat suitability for the Gophersnake living in an agricultural valley in BC, Canada, we estimated the impact of the poisoning of adult snakes on the long-term population size. To determine the area where Gophersnakes could be exposed to strychnine, we used vendor records of a rodenticide, and quantified the landcover areas of orchards and vineyards where the compound was most commonly applied. GIS analysis determined the areas of overlap between those agricultural lands and suitable habitats used by Gophersnakes. Stage-based population matrix models revealed that in a low density (0.1/ha) population scenario, a diet of one pocket gopher per year wherein 10 % of them carried enough strychnine to kill an adult snake could cause the loss of 2 females annually from the population and this would reduce the population by 35.3 % in 25 years. Under the same dietary exposure, up to 35 females could die per year in a high density (0.4/ha) population which would result in a loss of 50 % of adults in 25 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A Bishop
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, BC, V4K3N2, Canada.
| | | | - David A Kirk
- Aquila Conservation & Environment Consulting, 75 Albert Street, Suite 300, Ottawa, ON, K1P 5E7, Canada
| | - Patrick Nantel
- Parks Canada, Office of the Chief Ecosystem Scientist, 30 Victoria St., 3rd Floor, PC-03-D, Gatineau, QC, J8X 0B3, Canada
| | - Eric Reed
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 5019- 52 Street, Yellowknife, NT, X1A 2P7, Canada
| | - John E Elliott
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Science and Technology Branch, 5421 Robertson Road, Delta, BC, V4K3N2, Canada
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Clark RW, Dorr SW, Whitford MD, Freymiller GA, Hein SR. Comparison of anti-snake displays in the sympatric desert rodentsXerospermophilus tereticaudus(round-tailed ground squirrels) andDipodomys deserti(desert kangaroo rats). J Mammal 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyw137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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23
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Disappearance and Mortality Causes in Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel (Ictidomys tridecemlineatus) Juveniles. AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 2016. [DOI: 10.1674/0003-0031-176.1.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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24
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Responses of Natricine Snakes to Predatory Threat: A Mini-Review and Research Prospectus. J HERPETOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1670/15-103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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25
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Wu J. Detecting and Attributing the Effects of Climate Change on the Distributions of Snake Species Over the Past 50 Years. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2016; 57:207-219. [PMID: 26289351 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-015-0600-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
It is unclear whether the distributions of snakes have changed in association with climate change over the past years. We detected the distribution changes of snakes over the past 50 years and determined whether the changes could be attributed to recent climate change in China. Long-term records of the distribution of nine snake species in China, grey relationship analysis, fuzzy sets classification techniques, the consistency index, and attributed methods were used. Over the past 50 years, the distributions of snake species have changed in multiple directions, primarily shifting northwards, and most of the changes were related to the thermal index. Driven by climatic factors over the past 50 years, the distribution boundary and distribution centers of some species changed with the fluctuations. The observed and predicted changes in distribution were highly consistent for some snake species. The changes in the northern limits of distributions of nearly half of the species, as well as the southern and eastern limits, and the distribution centers of some snake species can be attributed to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianguo Wu
- The Center for Climate Change, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, No. 8, Da Yang Fang, Beiyuan, Anwai, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100012, China.
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26
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Earl JE, Harper E, Hocking DJ, Osbourn MS, Rittenhouse T, Semlitsch RD. Effects of timber harvest on small mammal captures in experimental forestry plots. ANIM BIOL 2016. [DOI: 10.1163/15707563-00002511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To investigate effects of timber harvest on small mammals, we compared capture rates in experimental forestry arrays of uncut forest, partial cut forest, and clearcuts with high and low coarse downed wood in Missouri, USA. Past studies show that effects of timber harvest on small mammals depend on species and forest type. We used an information theoretic approach to compare the effects of timber harvest treatment and habitat characteristics on capture rates. Sorex longirostris captures were best predicted by timber harvest treatment. S. longirostris had higher captures in the clearcut with low downed wood, intermediate numbers of captures in the partial cut and clearcut with high downed wood, and low captures in uncut forest. However, despite differences in captures between the clearcuts with high and low downed wood, we found no difference in habitat variables between the two clearcut types. Blarina spp., Microtus pinetorum, and Peromyscus spp. captures were best predicted by habitat variables rather than timber harvest treatment. Blarina spp. captures were associated with lower leaf litter depth. Peromyscus spp. and M. pinetorum captures were associated with increased coarse downed wood, possibly due to their preference for nest building under logs. Some of these relationships differ from results in other areas of the United States, which may reflect differences in species-habitat relationships in different forest types or regions. Relationships between species and habitat variables will be useful in adjusting forestry practices to meet species management objectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia E. Earl
- 1Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, USA
| | - Elizabeth B. Harper
- 2Division of Natural and Social Sciences, New England College, Henniker, New Hampshire 03287, USA
| | - Daniel J. Hocking
- 3Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
- 4Current address: S.O. Conte Anadromous Fish Research Center, USGS, Turner Falls, Massachusetts 01376, USA
| | - Michael S. Osbourn
- 5Department of Biology, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina 28608, USA
| | - Tracy A.G. Rittenhouse
- 6Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 60269, USA
| | - Raymond D. Semlitsch
- 3Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
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27
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Borgman CC, Wolf BO. The indirect effects of climate variability on the reproductive dynamics and productivity of an avian predator in the arid Southwest. Oecologia 2015; 180:279-91. [PMID: 26412213 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-015-3456-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The deserts of the southwestern US are experiencing rapid warming, and climate models predict declining winter precipitation. The combined effects of higher air temperatures and drought are a reduction in productivity, which may importantly impact reproduction in consumers. Here, we investigate the effects of warming and drought on the reproductive timing and output in loggerhead shrikes (Lanius ludovicianus) in central New Mexico from 2007 to 2012. We found increases in air temperature of 3 °C during the breeding season (March-July) and highly variable winter and annual precipitation. With increasing spring temperatures, shrikes advanced nesting phenology by 20 days over 6 years, a much higher rate than is reported for any other bird species. During this period, the number of breeding pairs also increased from 25 to 37, and clutch size and the number offspring produced per successful nest did not vary. Nest success, however, was often very low and ranged from 11 to 46%. Although our models indicated that low nest success was driven by precipitation and temperature, it was mediated indirectly through increased predation rates during the hot and dry periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrie C Borgman
- Envirological Services, 31 Jennifer Drive, Sandia Park, NM, 87047, USA.
- UNM Biology Department, MSC03-2020, 1, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
| | - Blair O Wolf
- UNM Biology Department, MSC03-2020, 1, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, USA.
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28
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Rebón-Gallardo F, Flores-Villela O, Ortíz-Ramírez DR. Predation of nestling house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus) by a dusky rattlesnake, Crotalus aquilus, in Hidalgo, Mexico. REV MEX BIODIVERS 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rmb.2015.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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30
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Hampton P, Kalmus T. The Allometry of Cranial Morphology and Gape Size in Red-Bellied Mudsnakes (Farancia abacura). HERPETOLOGICA 2014. [DOI: 10.1655/herpetologica-d-13-00067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Paul Hampton
- Department of Biology, Colorado Mesa University, Grand Junction, CO 81506, USA
| | - Taylor Kalmus
- Department of Biology, Carroll University, Waukesha, WI 53186, USA
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31
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Pereira PHC. “Swallowing it all” – Extreme ingestion capability of juvenile reef fish. BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2014. [DOI: 10.1590/s1676-06020140071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
During a predation event a juvenile grouper, rock hind Epinephelus adscensionis, fed upon the redlip blenny Ophioblennius trinitatis. It is important to highlight that both individuals had pretty much the same size during the predation event (around 5 cm); however, the grouper ingested the whole prey.
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32
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Feeding Habits of the Annulated Sea Snake,Hydrophis cyanocinctus, in the Persian Gulf. J HERPETOL 2013. [DOI: 10.1670/11-150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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33
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Feeding Ecology of the Milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum, Colubridae) in the Western United States. J HERPETOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1670/10-091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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34
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Close M, Cundall D. Mammals as prey: Estimating ingestible size. J Morphol 2012; 273:1042-9. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.20042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Revised: 03/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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35
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Lelièvre H, Legagneux P, Blouin-Demers G, Bonnet X, Lourdais O. Trophic niche overlap in two syntopic colubrid snakes (Hierophis viridiflavus and Zamenis longissimus) with contrasted lifestyles. AMPHIBIA-REPTILIA 2012. [DOI: 10.1163/156853811x620022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In many organisms, including snakes, trophic niche partitioning is an important mechanism promoting species coexistence. In ectotherms, feeding strategies are also influenced by lifestyle and thermoregulatory requirements: active foragers tend to maintain high body temperatures, expend more energy, and thus necessitate higher energy income. We studied diet composition and trophic niche overlap in two south European snakes (Hierophis viridiflavus and Zamenis longissimus) in the northern part of their range. The two species exhibit contrasted thermal adaptations, one being highly mobile and thermophilic (H. viridiflavus) and the other being elusive with low thermal needs (Z. longissimus). We analyzed feeding rate (proportion of snakes with indication of a recent meal) and examined more than 300 food items (fecal pellets and stomach contents) in 147 Z. longissimus and 167 H. viridiflavus. There was noticeable overlap in diet (overlap of Z. longissimus on H. viridiflavus = 0.62; overlap of H. viridiflavus on Z. longissimus = 0.80), but the similarity analyses showed some divergence in diet composition. Dietary spectrum was wider in H. viridiflavus, which fed on various mammals, birds, reptiles, and arthropods whereas Z. longissimus was more specialized on mammals and birds. The more generalist nature of H. viridiflavus was consistent with its higher energy requirements. In contrast to our expectation, feeding rate was apparently higher in Z. longissimus than in H. viridiflavus, but this could be an artifact of a longer transit time in Z. longissimus, given its lower mean body temperature. These results allow a better understanding of the ability to coexist in snakes belonging to temperate climate colubrid communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Lelièvre
- 1Centre d’Études Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
- 2Université de Poitiers, 40 avenue du Recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers, France
| | - Pierre Legagneux
- 3Département de biologie, Université Laval, Québec, G1V 0A6 Canada
| | | | - Xavier Bonnet
- 1Centre d’Études Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Olivier Lourdais
- 1Centre d’Études Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS, 79360 Villiers en Bois, France
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36
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Martino JA, Poulin RG, Parker DL, Somers CM. Habitat selection by grassland snakes at northern range limits: Implications for conservation. J Wildl Manage 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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37
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Roches SD, Robertson JM, Harmon LJ, Rosenblum EB. Ecological release in White Sands lizards. Ecol Evol 2011; 1:571-8. [PMID: 22393523 PMCID: PMC3287326 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2011] [Revised: 09/04/2011] [Accepted: 09/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ecological opportunity is any change that allows populations to escape selection from competition and predation. After encountering ecological opportunity, populations may experience ecological release: enlarged population size, broadened resource use, and/or increased morphological variation. We identified ecological opportunity and tested for ecological release in three lizard colonists of White Sands, New Mexico (Sceloporus undulatus, Holbrookia maculata, and Aspidoscelis inornata). First, we provide evidence for ecological opportunity by demonstrating reduced species richness and abundance of potential competitors and predators at White Sands relative to nearby dark soils habitats. Second, we characterize ecological release at White Sands by demonstrating density compensation in the three White Sands lizard species and expanded resource use in White Sands S. undulatus. Contrary to predictions from ecological release models, we observed directional trait change but not increased trait variation in S. undulatus. Our results suggest that ecological opportunity and ecological release can be identified in natural populations, especially those that have recently colonized isolated ecosystems.
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Reinert HK, MacGregor GA, Esch M, Bushar LM, Zappalorti RT. Foraging Ecology of Timber Rattlesnakes, Crotalus horridus. COPEIA 2011. [DOI: 10.1643/ce-09-130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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40
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Abstract
Snakes are increasingly kept by private hobbyists and their numbers in the pet trade are increasing. Since suitable diets are essential for the health, welfare and maintenance of captive animals, objective research is required to improve and evaluate current feeding practices. Unfortunately, the husbandry of reptiles is frequently led by tradition, resulting in methods which are not evidence based. One such occurrence is the widespread belief that day-old chicks (DOCs) are unsuitable as food for captive snakes. Since this assumption has not been systematically assessed, herein I review the evidence in order to provide a more informed basis from which to evaluate the suitability of chicks in relation to rodent prey. Commonly expressed nutritional, ecological and husbandry-related concerns are examined using compilations of previously published data, new data, prior experience and nutrient compositions obtained from the Zootrition™ database. Day-old chicks were compared with two rodent species (mice and rats) since these are the most commonly used alternative prey item. Rodents were clearly the better option only in their 'naturalness', in that mammalian prey species are more frequently represented in natural diets than birds. I conclude that DOCs are a suitable prey item for snakes in captive collections since the available data provide no firm evidence for their avoidance, contrary to popular belief. Many gaps in our knowledge remain that would assist further discussion of this issue, and these are highlighted within. It is pertinent that although these data indicate that DOCs are a viable alternative to rodent prey for captive snakes, they do not necessarily indicate its superiority. In most instances, rodents and DOCs may be regarded as practically equivalent and interchangeable. It is therefore the individual keeper's preference as to which to use, informed in particular circumstances by the information presented herein.
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Pellitteri-Rosa D, Sacchi R, Galeotti P, Marchesi M, Fasola M. Do Hermann's tortoises (Testudo hermanni) discriminate colours? An experiment with natural and artificial stimuli. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/11250000903464067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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42
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Tonic Communication in the Antipredator Behavior of Ground Squirrels. ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF BEHAVIOR 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3454(10)41004-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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ALEXANDER PYRON R, BURBRINK FT. Body size as a primary determinant of ecomorphological diversification and the evolution of mimicry in the lampropeltinine snakes (Serpentes: Colubridae). J Evol Biol 2009; 22:2057-67. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2009.01820.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Palmuti CFDS, Cassimiro J, Bertoluci J. Food habits of snakes from the RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala, an Atlantic Forest fragment of southeastern Brazil. BIOTA NEOTROPICA 2009. [DOI: 10.1590/s1676-06032009000100028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We present data on the diet of 15 species of snakes belonging to a community from Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural Feliciano Miguel Abdala, an Atlantic Forest fragment of Southeastern Brazil, based on their stomach contents. For 12 items we were able to determine the direction of the ingestion. Most snakes ingested the prey head-first. A cluster analysis was conducted with items grouped as chilopods, mollusks, adult anurans, anuran tadpoles, lizards, amphisbaenians, snakes, and rodents. The phylogenetic influence on diet preferences is discussed.
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Halstead BJ, Mushinsky HR, McCoy ED. Sympatric Masticophis flagellum and Coluber constrictor Select Vertebrate Prey at Different Levels of Taxonomy. COPEIA 2008. [DOI: 10.1643/ce-07-221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Glaudas X, Jezkova T, Rodríguez-Robles JA. Feeding ecology of the Great Basin Rattlesnake (Crotalus lutosus, Viperidae). CAN J ZOOL 2008. [DOI: 10.1139/z08-049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Documenting variation in organismal traits is essential to understanding the ecology of natural populations. We relied on stomach contents of preserved specimens and literature records to assess ontogenetic, intersexual, temporal, and geographic variations in the feeding ecology of the North American Great Basin Rattlesnake ( Crotalus lutosus Klauber, 1930). Snakes preyed mainly on rodents, occasionally on lizards, and less frequently on birds; squamate eggs and frogs were rarely eaten. There was a positive relationship between predator and prey size. The best predictors of this relationship were prey diameter as a function of snake body length and head size, underscoring the importance of prey diameter for gape-limited predators such as snakes. Crotalus lutosus displayed ontogenetic, sexual, and seasonal variations in diet. Smaller rattlesnakes fed predominantly on lizards, whereas larger individuals mostly fed on mammals. Females fed on lizards more often than males. The proportion of mammals in the diet was highest during the summer, a temporal variation that may be related to behavioral shifts in the diel activity and prey selectivity of C. lutosus, and (or) to differential abundance of rodents between seasons. Great Basin Rattlesnakes also displayed geographic variation in feeding habits, with snakes from the Great Basin Desert eating a higher proportion of lizards than serpents from the more northern Columbia Plateau.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Glaudas
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004, USA
| | - Tereza Jezkova
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004, USA
| | - Javier A. Rodríguez-Robles
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4004, USA
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Suazo-Ortuño I, Alvarado-Díaz J, Martínez-Ramos M. Effects of conversion of dry tropical forest to agricultural mosaic on herpetofaunal assemblages. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2008; 22:362-374. [PMID: 18294298 DOI: 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00883.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We explored the impact of forest conversion to agricultural mosaic on anuran, lizard, snake, and turtle assemblages of Neotropical dry forests. Over 2 years, we sampled 6 small watersheds on the west coast of Mexico, 3 conserved and 3 disturbed. The disturbed watersheds were characterized by a mosaic of pastures and cultivated fields (corn, beans, squash) intermingled with patches of different successional stages of dry forest. In each watershed, we conducted 11 diurnal and nocturnal time-constrained searches in 10 randomly established plots. We considered vulnerability traits of species in relation to habitat modification. Eighteen anuran, 18 lizard, 23 snake, and 3 turtle species were recorded. Thirty-six species (58%) occurred in both forest conditions, and 14 (22%) and 12 species (19%) occurred only in the conserved and disturbed sites, respectively. Assemblages responded differently to disturbance. Species richness, diversity, and abundance of lizards were higher in disturbed forests. Anuran diversity and species richness were lower in disturbed forest but abundance was similar in both forest conditions. Diversity, richness, and abundance of turtles were lower in disturbed forest. The structure and composition of snake assemblages did not differ between forest conditions. We considered species disturbance sensitive if their abundance was significantly less in disturbed areas. Four anuran (22%), 2 lizard (11%), and 3 turtle (100%) species were sensitive to disturbance. No snake species was sensitive. The decline in abundance of disturbance-sensitive species was associated with the reduction of forest canopy cover, woody stem cover, roots, and litter-layer ground cover. Anuran species with small body size and direct embryonic development were especially sensitive to forest disturbance. An important goal for the conservation of herpetofauna should be the determination of species traits associated with extinction or persistence in agricultural mosaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ireri Suazo-Ortuño
- Centro de Investigaciones en Ecosistemas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Antigua Carretera a Pátzcuaro no. 8701, Ex-Hacienda de San José de la Huerta, Morelia, Michoacán, C.P. 59180, Mexico.
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Mori A. Is headfirst ingestion essential in gape-limited predators? Prey-handling behavior of the anurophagous snake Rhabdophis tigrinus (Colubridae). CAN J ZOOL 2006. [DOI: 10.1139/z06-073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Headfirst ingestion of prey is a common adaptive behavioral trait in gape-limited predators that swallow large prey whole. To ascertain this tendency during anurophagy, prey handling and direction of prey ingestion were investigated in Rhabdophis tigrinus (Boie, 1826), a snake that feeds mainly on anurans. Examinations of stomach contents of wild R. tigrinus revealed that this snake does not show a tendency for headfirst ingestion of large prey, unlike most other snake species. In the laboratory, direction of ingestion depended largely on initial bite position, and when R. tigrinus swallowed a frog rump-first, the snake grasped both hind limbs of the frog and aligned them side by side so that both were swallowed together simultaneously from their tips. A simple model test suggested that physical resistance in the buccal cavity incurred during transportation of frogs may not differ between headfirst and hind-first ingestion if the hind limbs of frogs are aligned and swallowed simultaneously. Laboratory experiments also demonstrated that ingestively naive hatchlings of R. tigrinus are able to perform the unique manipulation required to swallow frogs hind-first. It is suggested that this unique ingestion mode is an adaptation for anurophagy, and several possible functional advantages are discussed.
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Moore RD, Griffiths RA, O'Brien CM, Murphy A, Jay D. Induced defences in an endangered amphibian in response to an introduced snake predator. Oecologia 2004; 141:139-47. [PMID: 15338267 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-004-1649-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2003] [Accepted: 06/04/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Introduced species have contributed significantly to the extinction of endemic species on islands. They also create new selection pressures on their prey that may result in modified life history strategies. Introduced viperine snakes ( Natrix maura) have been implicated in the decline of the endemic midwife toad of Mallorca ( Alytes muletensis). A comparison of A. muletensis tadpoles in natural pools with and without snakes showed that those populations subject to snake predation possessed longer tails with narrower tail fins but deeper tail muscles. Field and laboratory experiments showed that these changes in tail morphology could be induced by chemical and tactile cues from snakes. Populations of tadpoles that were subject to snake predation also displayed clear bimodal size-frequency distributions, with intermediate-sized tadpoles missing from the pools completely. Tadpoles in pools frequented by snakes developed faster in relation to their body size than those in pools without snakes. Variation in morphology between toad populations may therefore be caused by a combination of size-selective predation and tadpole plasticity. The results of this study indicate that the introduction of alien species can result in selection for induced defences, which may facilitate coexistence between predator and prey under certain conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin D Moore
- The Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, University of Kent, CT2 7NS, Canterbury, Kent, UK
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