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Shaffer JR, Orlova E, Lee MK, Leslie EJ, Raffensperger ZD, Heike CL, Cunningham ML, Hecht JT, Kau CH, Nidey NL, Moreno LM, Wehby GL, Murray JC, Laurie CA, Laurie CC, Cole J, Ferrara T, Santorico S, Klein O, Mio W, Feingold E, Hallgrimsson B, Spritz RA, Marazita ML, Weinberg SM. Genome-Wide Association Study Reveals Multiple Loci Influencing Normal Human Facial Morphology. PLoS Genet 2016; 12:e1006149. [PMID: 27560520 PMCID: PMC4999139 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous lines of evidence point to a genetic basis for facial morphology in humans, yet little is known about how specific genetic variants relate to the phenotypic expression of many common facial features. We conducted genome-wide association meta-analyses of 20 quantitative facial measurements derived from the 3D surface images of 3118 healthy individuals of European ancestry belonging to two US cohorts. Analyses were performed on just under one million genotyped SNPs (Illumina OmniExpress+Exome v1.2 array) imputed to the 1000 Genomes reference panel (Phase 3). We observed genome-wide significant associations (p < 5 x 10−8) for cranial base width at 14q21.1 and 20q12, intercanthal width at 1p13.3 and Xq13.2, nasal width at 20p11.22, nasal ala length at 14q11.2, and upper facial depth at 11q22.1. Several genes in the associated regions are known to play roles in craniofacial development or in syndromes affecting the face: MAFB, PAX9, MIPOL1, ALX3, HDAC8, and PAX1. We also tested genotype-phenotype associations reported in two previous genome-wide studies and found evidence of replication for nasal ala length and SNPs in CACNA2D3 and PRDM16. These results provide further evidence that common variants in regions harboring genes of known craniofacial function contribute to normal variation in human facial features. Improved understanding of the genes associated with facial morphology in healthy individuals can provide insights into the pathways and mechanisms controlling normal and abnormal facial morphogenesis. There is a great deal of evidence that genes influence facial appearance. This is perhaps most apparent when we look at our own families, since we are more likely to share facial features in common with our close relatives than with unrelated individuals. Nevertheless, little is known about how variation in specific regions of the genome relates to the kinds of distinguishing facial characteristics that give us our unique identities, e.g., the size and shape of our nose or how far apart our eyes are spaced. In this paper, we investigate this question by examining the association between genetic variants across the whole genome and a set of measurements designed to capture key aspects of facial form. We found evidence of genetic associations involving measures of eye, nose, and facial breadth. In several cases, implicated regions contained genes known to play roles in embryonic face formation or in syndromes in which the face is affected. Our ability to connect specific genetic variants to ubiquitous facial traits can inform our understanding of normal and abnormal craniofacial development, provide potential predictive models of evolutionary changes in human facial features, and improve our ability to create forensic facial reconstructions from DNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R. Shaffer
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Ekaterina Orlova
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Myoung Keun Lee
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth J. Leslie
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Zachary D. Raffensperger
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Carrie L. Heike
- Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children’s Craniofacial Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Michael L. Cunningham
- Department of Pediatrics, Seattle Children’s Craniofacial Center, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Jacqueline T. Hecht
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas McGovern Medical Center, Houston, Texas, United States of America
| | - Chung How Kau
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Nichole L. Nidey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Lina M. Moreno
- Department of Orthodontics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- Dows Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - George L. Wehby
- Department of Health Management and Policy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey C. Murray
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Cecelia A. Laurie
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Cathy C. Laurie
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Joanne Cole
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Tracey Ferrara
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Santorico
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, University of Colorado, Denver, Denver, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Ophir Klein
- Department of Orofacial Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Washington Mio
- Department of Mathematics, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, United States of America
| | - Eleanor Feingold
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Benedikt Hallgrimsson
- Department of Cell Biology & Anatomy, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Richard A. Spritz
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Mary L. Marazita
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Clinical and Translational Science Institute, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Seth M. Weinberg
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Weinberg SM, Parsons TE, Marazita ML, Maher BS. Heritability of Face Shape in Twins: A Preliminary Study using 3D Stereophotogrammetry and Geometric Morphometrics. DENTISTRY 3000 2013; 1. [PMID: 24501696 DOI: 10.5195/d3000.2013.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Previous research suggests that aspects of facial surface morphology are heritable. Traditionally, heritability studies have used a limited set of linear distances to quantify facial morphology and often employ statistical methods poorly designed to deal with biological shape. In this preliminary report, we use a combination of 3D photogrammetry and landmark-based morphometrics to explore which aspects of face shape show the strongest evidence of heritability in a sample of twins. METHODS 3D surface images were obtained from 21 twin pairs (10 monozygotic, 11 same-sex dizygotic). Thirteen 3D landmarks were collected from each facial surface and their coordinates subjected to geometric morphometric analysis. This involved superimposing the individual landmark configurations and then subjecting the resulting shape coordinates to a principal components analysis. The resulting PC scores were then used to calculate rough narrow-sense heritability estimates. RESULTS Three principal components displayed evidence of moderate to high heritability and were associated with variation in the breadth of orbital and nasal structures, upper lip height and projection, and the vertical and forward projection of the root of the nose due to variation in the position of nasion. CONCLUSIONS Aspects of facial shape, primarily related to variation in length and breadth of central midfacial structures, were shown to demonstrate evidence of strong heritability. An improved understanding of which facial features are under strong genetic control is an important step in the identification of specific genes that underlie normal facial variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth M Weinberg
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Trish E Parsons
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Mary L Marazita
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Brion S Maher
- Department of Mental Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Schoenebeck JJ, Hutchinson SA, Byers A, Beale HC, Carrington B, Faden DL, Rimbault M, Decker B, Kidd JM, Sood R, Boyko AR, Fondon JW, Wayne RK, Bustamante CD, Ciruna B, Ostrander EA. Variation of BMP3 contributes to dog breed skull diversity. PLoS Genet 2012; 8:e1002849. [PMID: 22876193 PMCID: PMC3410846 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Accepted: 06/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the beginnings of domestication, the craniofacial architecture of the domestic dog has morphed and radiated to human whims. By beginning to define the genetic underpinnings of breed skull shapes, we can elucidate mechanisms of morphological diversification while presenting a framework for understanding human cephalic disorders. Using intrabreed association mapping with museum specimen measurements, we show that skull shape is regulated by at least five quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Our detailed analysis using whole-genome sequencing uncovers a missense mutation in BMP3. Validation studies in zebrafish show that Bmp3 function in cranial development is ancient. Our study reveals the causal variant for a canine QTL contributing to a major morphologic trait. As a result of selective breeding practices, modern dogs display a multitude of head shapes. Breeds such as the Pug and Bulldog popularize one of these morphologies, termed “brachycephaly.” A short, upward-pointing snout, a massive and rounded head, and an underbite typify brachycephalic breeds. Here, we have coupled the phenotypes collected from museum skulls with the genotypes collected from dogs and identified five regions of the dog genome that are associated with canine brachycephaly. Fine mapping at one of these regions revealed a causal mutation in the gene BMP3. Bmp3's role in regulating cranial development is evolutionarily ancient, as zebrafish require its function to generate a normal craniofacial morphology. Our data begin to expose the genetic mechanisms unknowingly employed by breeders to create and diversify the cranial shape of dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J. Schoenebeck
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sarah A. Hutchinson
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexandra Byers
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Holly C. Beale
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Blake Carrington
- Zebrafish Core, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Daniel L. Faden
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maud Rimbault
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Brennan Decker
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey M. Kidd
- Department of Genetics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Raman Sood
- Zebrafish Core, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Adam R. Boyko
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - John W. Fondon
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas, United States of America
| | - Robert K. Wayne
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Carlos D. Bustamante
- Department of Genetics, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford, California, United States of America
| | - Brian Ciruna
- Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Elaine A. Ostrander
- Cancer Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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