Two different modes of transcription repression of the Escherichia coli acetate operon by IclR

Biosensor-Assisted Multitarget Gene Fine-Tuning for N-Acetylneuraminic Acid Production in Escherichia coli with Sole Carbon Source Glucose

N-Acetylneuraminic acid (NeuAc) is widely used in the food and medical industries. Microbial fermentation has become one of the most important approaches for NeuAc production. However, current research on NeuAc is confronted with challenges, including high production costs, interference from competitive pathways, and low conversion efficiency, all of which impede its efficient production. In this study, an engineered Escherichia coli capable of utilizing glucose as the sole carbon source for NeuAc production was constructed by optimizing the glucose utilization pathway, competitive pathways, and redox balance of NADH/NAD+. Subsequently, pathway genes were systematically upregulated to identify key target genes for improving NeuAc biosynthesis. The gene cluster glmSA*-glmM-SeglmU was identified as the key engineering target. To achieve multitarget coordinated optimization of this gene cluster in vivo, a highly responsive biosensor for NeuAc was developed, exhibiting a maximum response ratio of 10.62-fold. By the construction of random mutation libraries and integration of the NeuAc-responsive biosensor with high-throughput screening using flow cytometry, the expression levels of three key genes were synergistically optimized. As a result, highly efficient NeuAc-producing strain A39 was successfully obtained. In a 3-L bioreactor, the strain achieved a NeuAc titer of 58.26 g·L-1 with a productivity of 0.83 g·L-1·h-1, representing the highest reported production of NeuAc using glucose as the sole carbon source.

Design an Energy-Conserving Pathway for Efficient Biosynthesis of 1,5-Pentanediol and 5-Amino-1-Pentanol

1,5-Pentanediol (1,5-PDO) is an important five-carbon alcohol, widely used in polymer and pharmaceutical industries. Considering the substantial energy (ATP and NADPH) requirements of previous pathways, an energy-conserving artificial pathway with a higher theoretical yield (0.75 mol/mol glucose) was designed and constructed in this study. In this pathway, lysine is converted into 1,5-PDO by decarboxylation, two transamination, and two reduction reactions. For the purpose of full pathway construction, 5-aminopetanal reductase and 5-amino-1-pentanol (5-APO) transaminase were identified and characterized. By implementing strategies such as modular optimization of gene expression, enhancing lysine biosynthesis and increasing NADPH supply, the engineered strains were able to produce 1502.8 mg/L 5-APO and 726.2 mg/L 1,5-PDO in shake flasks and 11.7 g/L 1,5-PDO in a 3 L bioreactor. This work provides a new and promising pathway for the efficient production of 5-APO and 1,5-PDO.

High-Yield Synthesis of 2'-Fucosyllactose from Glycerol and Glucose in Engineered Escherichia coli

2'-Fucosyllactose (2'-FL) is vital for the growth and development of newborns. In this study, we developed a synthesis pathway for 2'-FL in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Then, we optimized the solubility of α-1,2-fucosyltransferase, thereby enhancing the production yield of 2'-FL. Based on this finding, we further enhanced the expression of guanosine inosine kinase Gsk and knocked out the isocitrate lyase regulator gene iclR. This strategy reduced the formation of byproduct acetate during the metabolic process and alleviated carbon source overflow effects in the strain, resulting in further improvement of the yield of 2'-FL. In a 3 L bioreactor, employing fed-batch fermentation with glycerol and glucose as substrates, the engineered strain BWLAI-RSZL exhibited impressive 2'-FL titers of 121.9 and 111.56 g/L, along with productivity levels of 1.57 and 1.31 g/L/h, respectively. The reported 2'-FL titers reached a groundbreaking level, irrespective of the carbon source employed (glycerol or glucose), highlighting the significant potential for large-scale industrial synthesis of 2'-FL.

Optimal transcriptional regulation of dynamic bacterial responses to sudden drug exposures

Cellular responses to the presence of toxic compounds in their environment require prompt expression of the correct levels of the appropriate enzymes, which are typically regulated by transcription factors that control gene expression for the duration of the response. The characteristics of each response dictate the choice of regulatory parameters such as the affinity of the transcription factor to its binding sites and the strength of the promoters it regulates. Although much is known about the dynamics of cellular responses, we still lack a framework to understand how different regulatory strategies evolved in natural systems relate to the selective pressures acting in each particular case. Here, we analyze a dynamical model of a typical antibiotic response in bacteria, where a transcriptionally repressed enzyme is induced by a sudden exposure to the drug that it processes. We identify strategies of gene regulation that optimize this response for different types of selective pressures, which we define as a set of costs associated with the drug, enzyme, and repressor concentrations during the response. We find that regulation happens in a limited region of the regulatory parameter space. While responses to more costly (toxic) drugs favor the usage of strongly self-regulated repressors, responses where expression of enzyme is more costly favor the usage of constitutively expressed repressors. Only a very narrow range of selective pressures favor weakly self-regulated repressors. We use this framework to determine which costs and benefits are most critical for the evolution of a variety of natural cellular responses that satisfy the approximations in our model and to analyze how regulation is optimized in new environments with different demands.

Degradation of Exogenous Fatty Acids in Escherichia coli

Many bacteria possess all the machineries required to grow on fatty acids (FA) as a unique source of carbon and energy. FA degradation proceeds through the β-oxidation cycle that produces acetyl-CoA and reduced NADH and FADH cofactors. In addition to all the enzymes required for β-oxidation, FA degradation also depends on sophisticated systems for its genetic regulation and for FA transport. The fact that these machineries are conserved in bacteria suggests a crucial role in environmental conditions, especially for enterobacteria. Bacteria also possess specific enzymes required for the degradation of FAs from their environment, again showing the importance of this metabolism for bacterial adaptation. In this review, we mainly describe FA degradation in the Escherichia coli model, and along the way, we highlight and discuss important aspects of this metabolism that are still unclear. We do not detail exhaustively the diversity of the machineries found in other bacteria, but we mention them if they bring additional information or enlightenment on specific aspects.

Investigating a putative transcriptional regulatory protein encoded by Rv1719 gene of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, demonstrates immense plasticity with which it adapts to a highly dynamic and hostile host environment. This is facilitated by a web of signalling pathways constantly modulated by a multitude of proteins that regulate the flow of genetic information inside the pathogen. Transcription factors (TFs) belongs to one such family of proteins that modulate the signalling by regulating the abundance of proteins at the transcript level. In the current study, we have characterized the putative transcriptional regulatory protein encoded by the Rv1719 gene of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This TF belongs to the IclR family of proteins with orthologs found in both bacterial and archaeal species. We cloned the Rv1719 gene into the pET28a expression vector and performed heterologous expression of the recombinant protein with E coli as the host. Further, optimization of the purification protocol by affinity chromatography and characterization of proteins for their functional viability has been demonstrated using various biochemical and/or biophysical approaches. Scale-up of purification yielded approximately 30 mg of ~ 28 kDa protein per litre of culture. In-silico protein domain analysis of Rv1719 protein predicted the presence of the helix-turn-helix (HTH) domain suggesting its ability to bind DNA sequence and modulate transcription; a hallmark of a transcriptional regulatory protein. Further, by performing electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) we demonstrated that the protein binds to a specific DNA fragment harboring the probable binding site of one of the predicted promoters.

Multiplex modification of Escherichia coli for enhanced β-alanine biosynthesis through metabolic engineering

β-Alanine is the only naturally occurring β-amino acid, widely used in the fine chemical and pharmaceutical fields. In this study, metabolic design strategies were attempted in Escherichia coli W3110 for enhancing β-alanine biosynthesis. Specifically, heterologous L-aspartate-α-decarboxylase was used, the aspartate kinase I and III involved in competitive pathways were down-regulated, the β-alanine uptake system was disrupted, the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase was overexpressed, and the isocitrate lyase repressor repressing glyoxylate cycle shunt was delete, the glucose uptake system was modified, and the regeneration of amino donor was up-regulated. On this basis, a plasmid harboring the heterologous panD and aspB was constructed. The resultant strain ALA17/pTrc99a-panD_BS-aspB_CG could yield 4.20 g/L β-alanine in shake flask and 43.94 g/L β-alanine (a yield of 0.20 g/g glucose) in 5-L bioreactor via fed-batch cultivation. These modification strategies were proved effective and the constructed β-alanine producer was a promising microbial cell factory for industrial production of β-alanine.

Single-Target Regulators Constitute the Minority Group of Transcription Factors in Escherichia coli K-12

The identification of regulatory targets of all transcription factors (TFs) is critical for understanding the entire network of genome regulation. A total of approximately 300 TFs exist in the model prokaryote Escherichia coli K-12, but the identification of whole sets of their direct targets is impossible with use of in vivo approaches. For this end, the most direct and quick approach is to identify the TF-binding sites in vitro on the genome. We then developed and utilized the gSELEX screening system in vitro for identification of more than 150 E. coli TF-binding sites along the E. coli genome. Based on the number of predicted regulatory targets, we classified E. coli K-12 TFs into four groups, altogether forming a hierarchy ranging from a single-target TF (ST-TF) to local TFs, global TFs, and nucleoid-associated TFs controlling as many as 1,000 targets. Using the collection of purified TFs and a library of genome DNA segments from a single and the same E. coli K-12, we identified here a total of 11 novel ST-TFs, CsqR, CusR, HprR, NorR, PepA, PutA, QseA, RspR, UvrY, ZraR, and YqhC. The regulation of single-target promoters was analyzed in details for the hitherto uncharacterized QseA and RspR. In most cases, the ST-TF gene and its regulatory target genes are adjacently located on the E. coli K-12 genome, implying their simultaneous transfer in the course of genome evolution. The newly identified 11 ST-TFs and the total of 13 hitherto identified altogether constitute the minority group of TFs in E. coli K-12.

Comparative Analysis of the IclR-Family of Bacterial Transcription Factors and Their DNA-Binding Motifs: Structure, Positioning, Co-Evolution, Regulon Content

The IclR-family is a large group of transcription factors (TFs) regulating various biological processes in diverse bacteria. Using comparative genomics techniques, we have identified binding motifs of IclR-family TFs, reconstructed regulons and analyzed their content, finding co-occurrences between the regulated COGs (clusters of orthologous genes), useful for future functional characterizations of TFs and their regulated genes. We describe two main types of IclR-family motifs, similar in sequence but different in the arrangement of the half-sites (boxes), with GKTYCRYW_3-4RYGRAMC and TGRAACAN_1-2TGTTYCA consensuses, and also predict that TFs in 32 orthologous groups have binding sites comprised of three boxes with alternating direction, which implies two possible alternative modes of dimerization of TFs. We identified trends in site positioning relative to the translational gene start, and show that TFs in 94 orthologous groups bind tandem sites with 18-22 nucleotides between their centers. We predict protein-DNA contacts via the correlation analysis of nucleotides in binding sites and amino acids of the DNA-binding domain of TFs, and show that the majority of interacting positions and predicted contacts are similar for both types of motifs and conform well both to available experimental data and to general protein-DNA interaction trends.

The Escherichia coli CitT transporter can be used as a succinate exporter for succinate production

Escherichia coli strain, whose gene is one of the subunits of succinate dehydrogenase (sdhA), and gene of the transcriptional repressor of isocitrate lyase (iclR) were disrupted, accumulated 6.6 times as much intracellular succinate as the wild-type MG1655 strain in aerobic growth, but succinate was not found in the culture medium. E. coli citT gene that encodes a citrate transporter was cloned under the control of the lacI promoter in pBR322-based plasmid and the above strain was transformed. This transformant, grown under aerobic condition in M9-tryptone medium with citrate, accumulated succinate in the medium while no succinate was found in the medium without citrate. CitT was active as a succinate transporter for 168 h by changing the culture medium or for 24 h in fed-batch culture. This study suggests that the CitT transporter functions as a succinate exporter in E. coli for succinate production in the presence of citrate.

Synthetic reconstruction of extreme high hydrostatic pressure resistance in Escherichia coli

Although high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is an interesting parameter to be applied in bioprocessing, its potential is currently limited by the lack of bacterial chassis capable of surviving and maintaining homeostasis under pressure. While several efforts have been made to genetically engineer microorganisms able to grow at sublethal pressures, there is little information for designing backgrounds that survive more extreme pressures. In this investigation, we analyzed the genome of an extreme HHP-resistant mutant of E. coli MG1655 (designated as DVL1), from which we identified four mutations (in the cra, cyaA, aceA and rpoD loci) causally linked to increased HHP resistance. Analysing the functional effect of these mutations we found that the coupled effect of downregulation of cAMP/CRP, Cra and the glyoxylate shunt activity, together with the upregulation of RpoH and RpoS activity, could mechanistically explain the increased HHP resistance of the mutant. Using combinations of three mutations, we could synthetically engineer E. coli strains able to comfortably survive pressures of 600-800 MPa, which could serve as genetic backgrounds for HHP-based biotechnological applications.

Disappearance of Quorum Sensing in Burkholderia glumae During Experimental Evolution

The plant pathogen Burkholderia glumae uses quorum sensing (QS) that allows bacteria to share information and alter gene expression on the basis of cell density. The wild-type strain of B. glumae produces quorum-sensing signals (autoinducers) to detect their community and upregulate QS-dependent genes across the population for performing social and group behaviors. The model organism B. glumae was selected to investigate adaptation, estimate evolutionary parameters, and test diverse evolutionary hypotheses by using experimental evolution. The wild-type B. glumae virulent strain showed genotypic changes during regular subculture due to oxygen limitation. The laboratory-evolved clones failed to produce the signaling molecule of C8-HSL/C6-HSL for activation of the quorum-sensing system. Further, the laboratory-evolved clones failed to produce catalase and oxalate for protecting themselves from the toxic environment at stationary phase and phytotoxins (toxoflavin) for infecting rice grain, respectively. The laboratory-evolved clones were completely sequenced and compared with the wild-type. Sequencing analysis of the evolved clones revealed that mutations in QS-responsible genes (iclR), sensor genes (shk, mcp), and signaling genes (luxR) were responsible for quorum-sensing activity failure. The experimental results and sequencing analysis revealed quorum-sensing process failure in the laboratory-evolved clones. In conclusion, the wild-type B. glumae strain was often exposed to oxidative stress during regular subculture and evolved as an avirulent strain (quorum-sensing mutant) by losing the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics.

Degradation strategies and associated regulatory mechanisms/features for aromatic compound metabolism in bacteria

As a result of anthropogenic activity, large number of recalcitrant aromatic compounds have been released into the environment. Consequently, microbial communities have adapted and evolved to utilize these compounds as sole carbon source, under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. The constitutive expression of enzymes necessary for metabolism imposes a heavy energy load on the microbe which is overcome by arrangement of degradative genes as operons which are induced by specific inducers. The segmentation of pathways into upper, middle and/or lower operons has allowed microbes to funnel multiple compounds into common key aromatic intermediates which are further metabolized through central carbon pathway. Various proteins belonging to diverse families have evolved to regulate the transcription of individual operons participating in aromatic catabolism. These proteins, complemented with global regulatory mechanisms, carry out the regulation of aromatic compound metabolic pathways in a concerted manner. Additionally, characteristics like chemotaxis, preferential utilization, pathway compartmentalization and biosurfactant production confer an advantage to the microbe, thus making bioremediation of the aromatic pollutants more efficient and effective.

Expression regulation of multiple key genes to improve L-threonine in Escherichia coli

Background

Escherichia coli is an important strain for l-threonine production. Genetic switch is a ubiquitous regulatory tool for gene expression in prokaryotic cells. To sense and regulate intracellular or extracellular chemicals, bacteria evolve a variety of transcription factors. The key enzymes required for l-threonine biosynthesis in E. coli are encoded by the thr operon. The thr operon could coordinate expression of these genes when l-threonine is in short supply in the cell.

Results

The thrL leader regulatory elements were applied to regulate the expression of genes iclR, arcA, cpxR, gadE, fadR and pykF, while the threonine-activating promoters P_cysH, P_cysJ and P_cysD were applied to regulate the expression of gene aspC, resulting in the increase of l-threonine production in an l-threonine producing E. coli strain TWF001. Firstly, different parts of the regulator thrL were inserted in the iclR regulator region in TWF001, and the best resulting strain TWF063 produced 16.34 g l-threonine from 40 g glucose after 30 h cultivation. Secondly, the gene aspC following different threonine-activating promoters was inserted into the chromosome of TWF063, and the best resulting strain TWF066 produced 17.56 g l-threonine from 40 g glucose after 30 h cultivation. Thirdly, the effect of expression regulation of arcA, cpxR, gadE, pykF and fadR was individually investigated on l-threonine production in TWF001. Finally, using TWF066 as the starting strain, the expression of genes arcA, cpxR, gadE, pykF and fadR was regulated individually or in combination to obtain the best strain for l-threonine production. The resulting strain TWF083, in which the expression of seven genes (iclR, aspC, arcA, cpxR, gadE, pykF, fadR and aspC) was regulated, produced 18.76 g l-threonine from 30 g glucose, 26.50 g l-threonine from 40 g glucose, or 26.93 g l-threonine from 50 g glucose after 30 h cultivation. In 48 h fed-batch fermentation, TWF083 could produce 116.62 g/L l‐threonine with a yield of 0.486 g/g glucose and productivity of 2.43 g/L/h.

Conclusion

The genetic engineering through the expression regulation of key genes is a better strategy than simple deletion of these genes to improve l-threonine production in E. coli. This strategy has little effect on the intracellular metabolism in the early stage of the growth but could increase l-threonine biosynthesis in the late stage.

Deletion of arcA, iclR, and tdcC in Escherichia coli to improve l-threonine production

l-Threonine is an important amino acid supplemented in food, medicine, or feed. Starting from glucose, l-threonine production in Escherichia coli involves the glycolysis, TCA cycle, and the l-threonine biosynthetic pathway. In this study, how the l-threonine production in an l-threonine producing E. coli TWF001 is controlled by the three regulators ArcA, Cra, and IclR, which control the expression of genes involved in the glycolysis and TCA cycle, has been investigated. Ten mutant strains were constructed from TWF001 by different combinations of deletion or overexpression of arcA, cra, iclR, and tdcC. l-Threonine production was increased in the mutants TWF015 (ΔarcAΔcra), TWF016 (ΔarcAPcra::Ptrc), TWF017 (ΔarcAΔiclR), TWF018 (ΔarcAΔiclRΔtdcC), and TWF019 (ΔarcAΔcraΔiclRΔtdcC). Among these mutant strains, the highest l-threonine production (26.0 g/L) was obtained in TWF018, which was a 109.7% increase compared with the control TWF001. In addition, TWF018 could consume glucose more efficiently than TWF001 and produce less acetate. The results suggest that deletion of arcA, iclR, and tdcC could efficiently increase l-threonine production in E. coli.

Targeting metabolic driving and intermediate influx in lysine catabolism for high-level glutarate production

Various biosynthetic pathways have been designed to explore sustainable production of glutarate, an attractive C5 building block of polyesters and polyamides. However, its efficient production has not been achieved in Escherichia coli. Here, we use E. coli native lysine catabolic machinery for glutarate biosynthesis. This endogenous genes-only design can generate strong metabolic driving force to maximize carbon flux toward glutarate biosynthesis by replenishing glutamate and NAD(P)H for lysine biosynthesis, releasing lysine feedback inhibition, and boosting oxaloacetate supply. We use native transporters to overcome extracellular accumulation of cadaverine and 5-aminovalerate. With these efforts, both high titer (54.5 g L^-1) and high yield (0.54 mol mol^-1 glucose) of glutarate production are achieved under fed-batch conditions. This work demonstrates the power of redirecting carbon flux and the role of transporters to decrease intermediate accumulation.

Increasing L-threonine production in Escherichia coli by engineering the glyoxylate shunt and the L-threonine biosynthesis pathway

L-threonine is an important amino acid that can be added in food, medicine, or feed. Here, the influence of glyoxylate shunt on an L-threonine producing strain Escherichia coli TWF001 has been studied. The gene iclR was deleted, and the native promoter of the aceBA operon was replaced by the trc promoter in the chromosome of TWF001, the resulting strainTWF004 could produce 0.39 g L-threonine from1 g glucose after 36-h flask cultivation. Further replacing the native promoter of aspC by the trc promoter in the chromosome of TWF004 resulted in the strain TWF006. TWF006 could produce 0.42 g L-threonine from 1 g glucose after 36-h flask cultivation. Three key genes in the biosynthetic pathway of L-threonine, thrA ^* (a mutated thrA), thrB, and thrC were overexpressed in TWF006, resulting the strain TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC. TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC could produce 0.49 g L-threonine from 1 g glucose after 36-h flask cultivation. Next, the genes asd, rhtA, rhtC, or thrE were inserted into the plasmid TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC, and TWF006 was transformed with these plasmids, resulting the strains TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-asd, TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-rhtA, TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-rhtC, and TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-thrE, respectively. These four strains could produce more L-threonine than the control strain, and the highest yield was produced by TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-asd; after 36-h flask cultivation, TWF006/pFW01-thrA ^* BC-asd could produce 15.85 g/l L-threonine, i.e., 0.53 g L-threonine per 1 g glucose, which is a 70% increase relative to the control strain TWF001. The results suggested that the combined engineering of glyoxylate shunt and L-threonine biosynthesis pathway could significantly increase the L-threonine production in E. coli.

Rediscovering Acetate Metabolism: Its Potential Sources and Utilization for Biobased Transformation into Value-Added Chemicals

One of the great advantages of microbial fermentation is the capacity to convert various carbon compounds into value-added chemicals. In this regard, there have been many efforts to engineer microorganisms to facilitate utilization of abundant carbon sources. Recently, the potential of acetate as a feedstock has been discovered; efforts have been made to produce various biochemicals from acetate based on understanding of its metabolism. In this review, we discuss the potential sources of acetate and summarized the recent progress to improve acetate utilization with microorganisms. Furthermore, we also describe representative studies that engineered microorganisms for the production of biochemicals from acetate.

Systems assessment of transcriptional regulation on central carbon metabolism by Cra and CRP

Two major transcriptional regulators of carbon metabolism in bacteria are Cra and CRP. CRP is considered to be the main mediator of catabolite repression. Unlike for CRP, in vivo DNA binding information of Cra is scarce. Here we generate and integrate ChIP-exo and RNA-seq data to identify 39 binding sites for Cra and 97 regulon genes that are regulated by Cra in Escherichia coli. An integrated metabolic-regulatory network was formed by including experimentally-derived regulatory information and a genome-scale metabolic network reconstruction. Applying analysis methods of systems biology to this integrated network showed that Cra enables optimal bacterial growth on poor carbon sources by redirecting and repressing glycolysis flux, by activating the glyoxylate shunt pathway, and by activating the respiratory pathway. In these regulatory mechanisms, the overriding regulatory activity of Cra over CRP is fundamental. Thus, elucidation of interacting transcriptional regulation of core carbon metabolism in bacteria by two key transcription factors was possible by combining genome-wide experimental measurement and simulation with a genome-scale metabolic model.

Metabolic engineering of a xylose pathway for biotechnological production of glycolate in Escherichia coli

BACKGROUND

Glycolate is a valuable chemical with extensive applications in many different fields. The traditional methods to synthesize glycolate are quite expensive and toxic. So, the biotechnological production of glycolate from sustainable feedstocks is of interest for its potential economic and environmental advantages. D-Xylose is the second most abundant sugar in nature and accounts for 18-30% of sugar in lignocellulose. New routes for the conversion of xylose to glycolate were explored.

RESULTS

Overexpression of aceA and ghrA and deletion of aceB in Escherichia coli were examined for glycolate production from xylose, but the conversion was initially ineffective. Then, a new route for glycolate production was established in E. coli by introducing NAD⁺-dependent xylose dehydrogenase (xdh) and xylonolactonase (xylC) from Caulobacter crescentus. The constructed engineered strain Q2562 produced 28.82 ± 0.56 g/L glycolate from xylose with 0.60 ± 0.01 g/L/h productivity and 0.38 ± 0.07 g/g xylose yield. However, 27.18 ± 2.13 g/L acetate was accumulated after fermentation. Deletions of iclR and ackA were used to overcome the acetate excretion. An ackA knockout resulted in about 66% decrease in acetate formation. The final engineered strain Q2742 produced 43.60 ± 1.22 g/L glycolate, with 0.91 ± 0.02 g/L/h productivity and 0.46 ± 0.03 g/g xylose yield.

CONCLUSIONS

A new route for glycolate production from xylose was established, and an engineered strain Q2742 was constructed from this new explored pathway. The engineering strain showed the highest reported productivity of glycolate to date. This research opened up a new prospect for bio-refinery of xylose and an alternative choice for industrial production of glycolate.

Lack of glyoxylate shunt dysregulates iron homeostasis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The aceA and glcB genes, encoding isocitrate lyase (ICL) and malate synthase, respectively, are not in an operon in many bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, unlike in Escherichia coli. Here, we show that expression of aceA in P. aeruginosa is specifically upregulated under H2O2-induced oxidative stress and under iron-limiting conditions. In contrast, the addition of exogenous redox active compounds or antibiotics increases the expression of glcB. The transcriptional start sites of aceA under iron-limiting conditions and in the presence of iron were found to be identical by 5' RACE. Interestingly, the enzymatic activities of ICL and isocitrate dehydrogenase had opposite responses under different iron conditions, suggesting that the glyoxylate shunt (GS) might be important under iron-limiting conditions. Remarkably, the intracellular iron concentration was lower while the iron demand was higher in the GS-activated cells growing on acetate compared to cells growing on glucose. Absence of GS dysregulated iron homeostasis led to changes in the cellular iron pool, with higher intracellular chelatable iron levels. In addition, GS mutants were found to have higher cytochrome c oxidase activity on iron-supplemented agar plates of minimal media, which promoted the growth of the GS mutants. However, deletion of the GS genes resulted in higher sensitivity to a high concentration of H2O2, presumably due to iron-mediated killing. In conclusion, the GS system appears to be tightly linked to iron homeostasis in the promotion of P. aeruginosa survival under oxidative stress.

Adaptive Mutations in RNA Polymerase and the Transcriptional Terminator Rho Have Similar Effects on Escherichia coli Gene Expression

Modifications to transcriptional regulators play a major role in adaptation. Here, we compared the effects of multiple beneficial mutations within and between Escherichia coli rpoB, the gene encoding the RNA polymerase β subunit, and rho, which encodes a transcriptional terminator. These two genes have harbored adaptive mutations in numerous E. coli evolution experiments but particularly in our previous large-scale thermal stress experiment, where the two genes characterized alternative adaptive pathways. To compare the effects of beneficial mutations, we engineered four advantageous mutations into each of the two genes and measured their effects on fitness, growth, gene expression and transcriptional termination at 42.2 °C. Among the eight mutations, two rho mutations had no detectable effect on relative fitness, suggesting they were beneficial only in the context of epistatic interactions. The remaining six mutations had an average relative fitness benefit of ∼20%. The rpoB mutations affected the expression of ∼1,700 genes; rho mutations affected the expression of fewer genes but most (83%) were a subset of those altered by rpoB mutants. Across the eight mutants, relative fitness correlated with the degree to which a mutation restored gene expression back to the unstressed, 37.0 °C state. The beneficial mutations in the two genes did not have identical effects on fitness, growth or gene expression, but they caused parallel phenotypic effects on gene expression and genome-wide transcriptional termination.

Specificity of genome evolution in experimental populations of Escherichia coli evolved at different temperatures

Isolated populations derived from a common ancestor are expected to diverge genetically and phenotypically as they adapt to different local environments. To examine this process, 30 populations of Escherichia coli were evolved for 2,000 generations, with six in each of five different thermal regimes: constant 20 °C, 32 °C, 37 °C, 42 °C, and daily alternations between 32 °C and 42 °C. Here, we sequenced the genomes of one endpoint clone from each population to test whether the history of adaptation in different thermal regimes was evident at the genomic level. The evolved strains had accumulated ∼5.3 mutations, on average, and exhibited distinct signatures of adaptation to the different environments. On average, two strains that evolved under the same regime exhibited ∼17% overlap in which genes were mutated, whereas pairs that evolved under different conditions shared only ∼4%. For example, all six strains evolved at 32 °C had mutations in nadR, whereas none of the other 24 strains did. However, a population evolved at 37 °C for an additional 18,000 generations eventually accumulated mutations in the signature genes strongly associated with adaptation to the other temperature regimes. Two mutations that arose in one temperature treatment tended to be beneficial when tested in the others, although less so than in the regime in which they evolved. These findings demonstrate that genomic signatures of adaptation can be highly specific, even with respect to subtle environmental differences, but that this imprint may become obscured over longer timescales as populations continue to change and adapt to the shared features of their environments.

Improving the production of acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) through iclR and arcA deletion

BACKGROUND

Acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals are suitable for multiple applications in many industries. The bio-production of these chemicals has become imperative owing to the economic and environmental problems. However, acetate overflow is the major drawback for acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals production. Approaches for overcoming acetate overflow may be beneficial for the production of acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals.

RESULTS

In this study, a transcriptional regulator iclR was knocked out in E.coli BL21(DE3) to overcome acetate overflow and improve the chemicals production. Two important acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals, phloroglucinol (PG) and 3-hydroxypropionate (3HP) were used to evaluate it. It is revealed that knockout of iclR significantly increased expressions of aceBAK operon. The cell yields and glucose utilization efficiencies were higher than those of control strains. The acetate concentrations were decreased by more than 50% and the productions of PG and 3HP were increased more than twice in iclR mutants. The effects of iclR knockout on cell physiology, cell metabolism and production of acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals were similar to those of arcA knockout in our previous study. However, the arcA-iclR double mutants couldn't gain higher productions of PG and 3HP. The mechanisms are unclear and needed to be resolved in future.

CONCLUSIONS

Knockout of iclR significantly increased gene expression of aceBAK operon and concomitantly activated glyoxylate pathway. This genetic modification may be a good way to overcome acetate overflow, and improve the production of a wide range of acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals.

Derepression of Mineral Phosphate Solubilization Phenotype by Insertional Inactivation of iclR in Klebsiella pneumoniae

The mode of succinate mediated repression of mineral phosphate solubilization and the role of repressor in suppressing phosphate solubilization phenotype of two free-living nitrogen fixing Klebsiella pneumoniae strains was studied. Organic acid mediated mineral phosphate solubilization phenotype of oxalic acid producing Klebsiella pneumoniae SM6 and SM11 were transcriptionally repressed by IclR in presence of succinate as carbon source. Oxalic acid production and expression of genes of the glyoxylate shunt (aceBAK) was found only in glucose but not in succinate- and glucose+succinate-grown cells. IclR, repressor of aceBAK operon, was inactivated using an allelic exchange system resulting in derepressed mineral phosphate solubilization phenotype through constitutive expression of the glyoxylate shunt. Insertional inactivation of iclR resulted in increased activity of the glyoxylate shunt enzymes even in succinate-grown cells. An augmented phosphate solubilization up to 54 and 59% soluble phosphate release was attained in glucose+succinate-grown SM6Δ and SM11Δ strains respectively, compared to glucose-grown cells, whereas phosphate solubilization was absent or negligible in wildtype cells grown in glucose+succinate. Both wildtype and iclR deletion strains showed similar indole-3-acetic acid production. Wheat seeds inoculated with wildtype SM6 and SM11 improved both root and shoot length by 1.2 fold. However, iclR deletion SM6Δ and SM11Δ strains increased root and shoot length by 1.5 and 1.4 folds, respectively, compared to uninoculated controls. The repressor inactivated phosphate solubilizers better served the purpose of constitutive phosphate solubilization in pot experiments, where presence of other carbon sources (e.g., succinate) might repress mineral phosphate solubilization phenotype of wildtype strains.

Pull-in urea cycle for the production of fumaric acid in Escherichia coli

Fumaric acid (FA) is an important raw material in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. In this work, Escherichia coli was metabolically engineered for the production of FA. The fumA, fumB, fumC, and frdABCD genes were deleted to cut off the downstream pathway of FA. In addition, the iclR and arcA genes were also deleted to activate the glyoxylate shunt and to reinforce the oxidative Krebs cycle. To increase the FA yield, this base strain was further engineered to be pulled in the urea cycle by overexpressing the native carAB, argI, and heterologous rocF genes. The metabolites and the proteins of the Krebs cycle and the urea cycle were analyzed to confirm that the induced urea cycle improved the FA accumulation. With the induced urea cycle, the resulting strain ABCDIA-RAC was able to produce 11.38 mmol/L of FA from 83.33 mmol/L of glucose in a flask culture during 24 h of incubation.

Construction of Escherichia Coli Cell Factories for Production of Organic Acids and Alcohols

Production of bulk chemicals from renewable biomass has been proved to be sustainable and environmentally friendly. Escherichia coli is the most commonly used host strain for constructing cell factories for production of bulk chemicals since it has clear physiological and genetic characteristics, grows fast in minimal salts medium, uses a wide range of substrates, and can be genetically modified easily. With the development of metabolic engineering, systems biology, and synthetic biology, a technology platform has been established to construct E. coli cell factories for bulk chemicals production. In this chapter, we will introduce this technology platform, as well as E. coli cell factories successfully constructed for production of organic acids and alcohols.

Construction of an L-serine producing Escherichia coli via metabolic engineering

L-Serine is a nonessential amino acid, but plays a crucial role as a building block for cell growth. Currently, L-serine production is mainly dependent on enzymatic or cellular conversion. In this study, we constructed a recombinant Escherichia coli that can fermentatively produce L-serine from glucose. To accumulate L-serine, sdaA encoding the L-serine dehydratase, iclR encoding the isocitrate lyase regulator, and arcA encoding the aerobic respiration control protein were deleted in turn. In batch fermentation, the engineered E. coli strain YF-5 exhibited obvious L-serine accumulation but poor cell growth. To restore cell growth, aceB encoding the malate synthase was knocked out, and the engineered strain was then transformed with plasmid that overexpressed serA (FR) , serB, and serC genes. The resulting strain YF-7 produced 4.5 g/L L-serine in batch cultivation and 8.34 g/L L-serine in fed-batch cultivation.

The hierarchic network of metal-response transcription factors in Escherichia coli

Enterobacteria such as Escherichia coli are able to survive under various environments within host animals by changes of the expression pattern of its genome. The selective expression of genes in its genome takes place by controlling the promoter recognition properties of RNA polymerase by protein-protein interplays with transcription factors. In this review, I describe the regulatory network formed by the metal-sensing transcription factors in E. coli. Comprehensive analyses identify the set of regulation targets for a total of 13 metal-response transcription factors, indicating that nine species of transcription factors are local regulators while four species of transcription factors are global regulators. The signal transduction pathways for these metal-response regulons show not only the complex cross-talks but also the hierarchic multi-regulatory network. This regulatory network seems to play a role for E. coli survival to colonize in a large intestine within host animals.

Involvement of the global regulator GlxR in 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate utilization by Corynebacterium glutamicum

Corynebacterium glutamicum is an industrially important producer of amino acids and organic acids, as well as an emerging model system for aromatic assimilation. An IclR-type regulator GenR has been characterized to activate the transcription of genDFM and genKH operons for 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate catabolism and represses its own expression. On the other hand, GlxR, a global regulator of the cyclic AMP (cAMP) receptor protein-fumarate nitrate reductase regulator (CRP-FNR) type, was also predicted to be involved in this pathway. In this study, electrophoretic mobility shift assays and footprinting analyses demonstrated that GlxR bound to three sites in the promoter regions of three gen operons. A combination of site-directed mutagenesis of the biding sites, promoter activity assay, and GlxR overexpression demonstrated that GlxR repressed their expression by binding these sites. One GlxR binding site (DFMx) was found to be located -13 to +8 bp upstream of the genDFM promoter, which was involved in negative regulation of genDFM transcription. The GlxR binding site R-KHx01 (located between positions -11 to +5) was upstream of the genKH promoter sequence and involved in negative regulation of its transcription. The binding site R-KHx02, at which GlxR binds to genR promoter to repress its expression, was found within a footprint extending from positions -71 to -91 bp. These results reveal that GlxR represses the transcription of all three gen operons and then contributes to the synchronization of their expression for 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate catabolism in collaboration with the specific regulator GenR.

Characterization of LgnR, an IclR family transcriptional regulator involved in the regulation of l-gluconate catabolic genes in Paracoccus sp. 43P

Five genes encoding enzymes required for l-gluconate catabolism, together with genes encoding components of putative ABC transporters, are located in a cluster in the genome of Paracoccus sp. 43P. A gene encoding a transcriptional regulator in the IclR family, lgnR, is located in front of the cluster in the opposite direction. Reverse transcription PCR analysis indicated that the cluster was transcribed as an operon, termed the lgn operon. Two promoters, P lgnA and P lgnR , are divergently located in the intergenic region, and transcription from these promoters was induced by addition of l-gluconate or d-idonate, a catabolite of l-gluconate. Deletion of lgnR resulted in constitutive expression of lgnA, lgnH and lgnR, indicating that lgnR encodes a repressor protein for the expression of the lgn operon and lgnR itself. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay and DNase I footprinting analyses revealed that recombinant LgnR binds to both P lgnA and P lgnR , indicating that LgnR represses transcription from these promoters by competing with RNA polymerase for binding to these sequences. d-Idonate was identified as a candidate effector molecule for dissociation of LgnR from these promoters. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that LgnR formed a cluster with putative proteins from other genome sequences, which is distinct from those proteins of known regulatory functions, in the IclR family of transcriptional regulators. Additionally, the phylogeny suggests an evolutionary linkage between the l-gluconate catabolic pathway and d-galactonate catabolic pathways distributed in Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, Gammaproteobacteria and Actinobacteria.

Helicobacter pylori RNA polymerase α-subunit C-terminal domain shows features unique to ɛ-proteobacteria and binds NikR/DNA complexes

Bacterial RNA polymerase is a large, multi-subunit enzyme responsible for transcription of genomic information. The C-terminal domain of the α subunit of RNA polymerase (αCTD) functions as a DNA and protein recognition element localizing the polymerase on certain promoter sequences and is essential in all bacteria. Although αCTD is part of RNA polymerase, it is thought to have once been a separate transcription factor, and its primary role is the recruitment of RNA polymerase to various promoters. Despite the conservation of the subunits of RNA polymerase among bacteria, the mechanisms of regulation of transcription vary significantly. We have determined the tertiary structure of Helicobacter pylori αCTD. It is larger than other structurally determined αCTDs due to an extra, highly amphipathic helix near the C-terminal end. Residues within this helix are highly conserved among ɛ-proteobacteria. The surface of the domain that binds A/T rich DNA sequences is conserved and showed binding to DNA similar to αCTDs of other bacteria. Using several NikR dependent promoter sequences, we observed cooperative binding of H. pylori αCTD to NikR:DNA complexes. We also produced αCTD lacking the 19 C-terminal residues, which showed greatly decreased stability, but maintained the core domain structure and binding affinity to NikR:DNA at low temperatures. The modeling of H. pylori αCTD into the context of transcriptional complexes suggests that the additional amphipathic helix mediates interactions with transcriptional regulators.

Mass spectrometry-based workflow for accurate quantification of Escherichia coli enzymes: how proteomics can play a key role in metabolic engineering

Metabolic engineering aims to design high performance microbial strains producing compounds of interest. This requires systems-level understanding; genome-scale models have therefore been developed to predict metabolic fluxes. However, multi-omics data including genomics, transcriptomics, fluxomics, and proteomics may be required to model the metabolism of potential cell factories. Recent technological advances to quantitative proteomics have made mass spectrometry-based quantitative assays an interesting alternative to more traditional immuno-affinity based approaches. This has improved specificity and multiplexing capabilities. In this study, we developed a quantification workflow to analyze enzymes involved in central metabolism in Escherichia coli (E. coli). This workflow combined full-length isotopically labeled standards with selected reaction monitoring analysis. First, full-length (15)N labeled standards were produced and calibrated to ensure accurate measurements. Liquid chromatography conditions were then optimized for reproducibility and multiplexing capabilities over a single 30-min liquid chromatography-MS analysis. This workflow was used to accurately quantify 22 enzymes involved in E. coli central metabolism in a wild-type reference strain and two derived strains, optimized for higher NADPH production. In combination with measurements of metabolic fluxes, proteomics data can be used to assess different levels of regulation, in particular enzyme abundance and catalytic rate. This provides information that can be used to design specific strains used in biotechnology. In addition, accurate measurement of absolute enzyme concentrations is key to the development of predictive kinetic models in the context of metabolic engineering.

Directed pathway evolution of the glyoxylate shunt in Escherichia coli for improved aerobic succinate production from glycerol

α-Ketoglutarate is accumulated as the main byproduct during the aerobic succinate production from glycerol by Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) in minimal medium. To address this issue, here a strategy of directed pathway evolution was developed to enhance the alternative succinate production route-the glyoxylate shunt. Via the directed pathway evolution, the glyoxylate shunt was recruited as the primary anaplerotic pathway in a ppc mutant, which restored its viability in glycerol minimal medium. Subsequently, the operon sdhCDAB was deleted and the gene ppc was reverted in the evolved strain for succinate production. The resulting strain E2-Δsdh-ppc produced 30 % more succinate and 46 % less α-ketoglutarate than the control strain. A G583T mutation in gene icdA, which significantly decreased the activity of isocitrate dehydrogenase, was identified in the evolved strain as the main mutation responsible for the observed phenotype. Overexpression of α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex in E2-Δsdh-ppc further reduced the amount of byproduct and improved succinate production. The final strain E2-Δsdh-ppc-sucAB produced 366 mM succinate from 1.3 M glycerol in minimal medium in fed-batch fermentation. The maximum and average succinate volumetric productivities were 19.2 and 6.55 mM h(-1), respectively, exhibiting potential industrial production capacity from the low-priced substrate.

GenR, an IclR-type regulator, activates and represses the transcription of gen genes involved in 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate catabolism in Corynebacterium glutamicum

The genes required for 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate catabolism in Corynebacterium glutamicum are closely clustered in three operons. GenR, an IclR-type regulator, can activate the transcription of genKH and genDFM operons in response to 3-hydroxybenzoate and gentisate, and it can repress its own expression. Footprinting analyses demonstrated that GenR bound to four sites with different affinities. Two GenR-binding sites (DFMn01 and DFMn02) were found to be located between positions --41 and --84 upstream of the --35 and --10 regions of the genDFM promoter, which was involved in positive regulation of genDFM transcription. The GenR binding site R-KHn01 (located between positions --47 and --16) overlapped the --35 region of the genKH promoter sequence and is involved in positive regulation of its transcription. The binding site R-KHn02, at which GenR binds to its own promoter, was found within a footprint extending from position --44 to --67. It appeared to be involved in negative regulation of the activity of the genR promoter. A consensus motif with a 5-bp imperfect palindromic sequence [ATTCC-N(7(5))-GGAAT] was identified among all four GenR binding sites and found to be necessary to GenR regulation through site-directed mutagenesis. The results reveal a new regulatory function of the IclR family in the catabolism of aromatic compounds.

DNA looping in prokaryotes: experimental and theoretical approaches

Transcriptional regulation is at the heart of biological functions such as adaptation to a changing environment or to new carbon sources. One of the mechanisms which has been found to modulate transcription, either positively (activation) or negatively (repression), involves the formation of DNA loops. A DNA loop occurs when a protein or a complex of proteins simultaneously binds to two different sites on DNA with looping out of the intervening DNA. This simple mechanism is central to the regulation of several operons in the genome of the bacterium Escherichia coli, like the lac operon, one of the paradigms of genetic regulation. The aim of this review is to gather and discuss concepts and ideas from experimental biology and theoretical physics concerning DNA looping in genetic regulation. We first describe experimental techniques designed to show the formation of a DNA loop. We then present the benefits that can or could be derived from a mechanism involving DNA looping. Some of these are already experimentally proven, but others are theoretical predictions and merit experimental investigation. Then, we try to identify other genetic systems that could be regulated by a DNA looping mechanism in the genome of Escherichia coli. We found many operons that, according to our set of criteria, have a good chance to be regulated with a DNA loop. Finally, we discuss the proposition recently made by both biologists and physicists that this mechanism could also act at the genomic scale and play a crucial role in the spatial organization of genomes.

A protease-insensitive feruloyl esterase from China Holstein cow rumen metagenomic library: expression, characterization, and utilization in ferulic acid release from wheat straw

A metagenomic library of China Holstein cow rumen microbes was constructed and screened for novel gene cluster. A novel feruloyl esterase (FAE) gene was identified with a length of 789 bp and encoded a protein displaying 56% identity to known esterase sequences. The gene was functionally expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3), and the total molecular weight of the recombined protein was 32.4 kDa. The purified enzyme showed a broad specificity against the four methyl esters of hydroxycinnamic acids and high activity (259.5 U/mg) to methyl ferulate at optimum conditions (pH 8.0, 40 °C). High thermal and pH stability were also observed. Moreover, the enzyme showed broad resistance to proteases. FAE-SH1 can enhance the release of ferulic acid from wheat straw with cellulase, β-1,4-endoxylanase, β-1,3-glucanase, and pectase. These features suggest FAE-SH1 as a good candidate to enhance biomass degradation and improve the health effects of food and forage.

Molecular mechanisms underlying the function diversity of transcriptional factor IclR family

The IclR family transcriptional factor is widespread and involves in diverse bacterial physio-pathological events, such as primary and secondary metabolism, virulence, quorum sensing, sporulation. Unlike other transcriptional factors which function as either activators or repressors, IclR can assume both role simutaneously. Its N-terminal domain possesses a helix-turn-helix DNA binding motif which can dimerize or tetramerize to bind target promoters, while the C-terminal domain is for the effector binding. The function of IclR varies with the effectors bound. Escherichia coli transcription factor IclR is the archetype of this family, which regulates the aceBAK operon responsible for the glyoxylate shunt. The sophisticated regulatory mechanisms underlying iclR was largely based on E. coli iclR. Information concerning the pathogen IclR, especially those of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is poor, and is pivotal to our understanding of its biology and development of new effective TB control measures.

KdgR, an IClR family transcriptional regulator, inhibits virulence mainly by repression of hrp genes in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae

KdgR has been reported to negatively regulate the genes involved in degradation and metabolization of pectic acid and other extracellular enzymes in soft-rotting Erwinia spp. through direct binding to their promoters. The possible involvement of a KdgR orthologue in virulence by affecting the expression of extracellular enzymes in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae, the causal agent of rice blight disease, was examined by comparing virulence and regulation of extracellular enzymes between the wild type (WT) and a strain carrying a mutation in putative kdgR (ΔXoo0310 mutant). This putative kdgR mutant of X. oryzae pv. oryzae showed increased pathogenicity on rice without affecting the regulation of extracellular enzymes, such as amylase, cellulase, xylanase, and protease. However, the mutant carrying a mutation in an ortholog of xpsL, which encodes the functional secretion machinery for the extracellular enzymes, showed a dramatic decrease in pathogenicity on rice. Both mutants of kdgR and of xpsL orthologs showed higher expression of two major hrp regulatory genes, hrpG and hrpX, and the genes in the hrp operons when grown in hrp-inducing medium. Thus, both genes were shown to be involved in repression of hrp genes. The kdgR ortholog was thought to suppress virulence mainly by repressing the expression of hrp genes without affecting the expression of extracellular enzymes, unlike findings for the kdgR gene in soft-rotting Erwinia spp. On the other hand, xpsL was confirmed to be involved in virulence by promoting the secretion of extracellular enzymes in spite of repressing the expression of the hrp genes.

Effect of iclR and arcA knockouts on biomass formation and metabolic fluxes in Escherichia coli K12 and its implications on understanding the metabolism of Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3)

Background

Gene expression is regulated through a complex interplay of different transcription factors (TFs) which can enhance or inhibit gene transcription. ArcA is a global regulator that regulates genes involved in different metabolic pathways, while IclR as a local regulator, controls the transcription of the glyoxylate pathway genes of the aceBAK operon. This study investigates the physiological and metabolic consequences of arcA and iclR deletions on E. coli K12 MG1655 under glucose abundant and limiting conditions and compares the results with the metabolic characteristics of E. coli BL21 (DE3).

Results

The deletion of arcA and iclR results in an increase in the biomass yield both under glucose abundant and limiting conditions, approaching the maximum theoretical yield of 0.65 c-mole/c-mole glucose under glucose abundant conditions. This can be explained by the lower flux through several CO₂ producing pathways in the E. coli K12 ΔarcAΔiclR double knockout strain. Due to iclR gene deletion, the glyoxylate pathway is activated resulting in a redirection of 30% of the isocitrate molecules directly to succinate and malate without CO₂ production. Furthermore, a higher flux at the entrance of the TCA was noticed due to arcA gene deletion, resulting in a reduced production of acetate and less carbon loss. Under glucose limiting conditions the flux through the glyoxylate pathway is further increased in the ΔiclR knockout strain, but this effect was not observed in the double knockout strain. Also a striking correlation between the glyoxylate flux data and the isocitrate lyase activity was observed for almost all strains and under both growth conditions, illustrating the transcriptional control of this pathway. Finally, similar central metabolic fluxes were observed in E. coli K12 ΔarcA ΔiclR compared to the industrially relevant E. coli BL21 (DE3), especially with respect to the pentose pathway, the glyoxylate pathway, and the TCA fluxes. In addition, a comparison of the genome sequences of the two strains showed that BL21 possesses two mutations in the promoter region of iclR and rare codons are present in arcA implying a lower tRNA acceptance. Both phenomena presumably result in a reduced ArcA and IclR synthesis in BL21, which contributes to the similar physiology as observed in E. coli K12 ΔarcAΔiclR.

Conclusions

The deletion of arcA results in a decrease of repression on transcription of TCA cycle genes under glucose abundant conditions, without significantly affecting the glyoxylate pathway activity. IclR clearly represses transcription of glyoxylate pathway genes under glucose abundance, a condition in which Crp activation is absent. Under glucose limitation, Crp is responsible for the high glyoxylate flux, but IclR still represses transcription. Finally, in E. coli BL21 (DE3), ArcA and IclR are poorly expressed, explaining the similar fluxes observed compared to the ΔarcAΔiclR strain.

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens transcription factor BlcR is regulated via oligomerization

The Agrobacterium tumefaciens BlcR is a member of the emerging isocitrate lyase transcription regulators that negatively regulates metabolism of γ-butyrolactone, and its repressing function is relieved by succinate semialdehyde (SSA). Our crystal structure showed that BlcR folded into the DNA- and SSA-binding domains and dimerized via the DNA-binding domains. Mutational analysis identified residues, including Phe(147), that are important for SSA association; BlcR(F147A) existed as tetramer. Two BlcR dimers bound to target DNA and in a cooperative manner, and the distance between the two BlcR-binding sequences in DNA was critical for BlcR-DNA association. Tetrameric BlcR(F147A) retained DNA binding activity, and importantly, this activity was not affected by the distance separating the BlcR-binding sequences in DNA. SSA did not dissociate tetrameric BlcR(F147A) or BlcR(F147A)-DNA. As well as in the SSA-binding site, Phe(147) is located in a structurally flexible loop that may be involved in BlcR oligomerization. We propose that SSA regulates BlcR DNA-binding function via oligomerization.