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Simpson CJC, Singh P, Sogbohossou DEO, Eric Schranz M, Hibberd JM. A rapid method to quantify vein density in C 4 plants using starch staining. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2023; 46:2928-2938. [PMID: 37350263 PMCID: PMC10947256 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis has evolved multiple times in the angiosperms and typically involves alterations to the biochemistry, cell biology and development of leaves. One common modification found in C4 plants compared with the ancestral C3 state is an increase in vein density such that the leaf contains a larger proportion of bundle sheath cells. Recent findings indicate that there may be significant intraspecific variation in traits such as vein density in C4 plants but to use such natural variation for trait-mapping, rapid phenotyping would be required. Here we report a high-throughput method to quantify vein density that leverages the bundle sheath-specific accumulation of starch found in C4 species. Starch staining allowed high-contrast images to be acquired permitting image analysis with MATLAB- and Python-based programmes. The method works for dicotyledons and monocotolydons. We applied this method to Gynandropsis gynandra where significant variation in vein density was detected between natural accessions, and Zea mays where no variation was apparent in the genotypically diverse lines assessed. We anticipate this approach will be useful to map genes controlling vein density in C4 species demonstrating natural variation for this trait.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pallavi Singh
- Department of Plant SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | | | - M. Eric Schranz
- Biosystematics GroupWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
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2
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Singh P, Stevenson SR, Dickinson PJ, Reyna-Llorens I, Tripathi A, Reeves G, Schreier TB, Hibberd JM. C 4 gene induction during de-etiolation evolved through changes in cis to allow integration with ancestral C 3 gene regulatory networks. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eade9756. [PMID: 36989352 PMCID: PMC10058240 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.ade9756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis has evolved by repurposing enzymes found in C3 plants. Compared with the ancestral C3 state, accumulation of C4 cycle proteins is enhanced. We used de-etiolation of C4 Gynandropsis gynandra and C3 Arabidopsis thaliana to understand this process. C4 gene expression and chloroplast biogenesis in G. gynandra were tightly coordinated. Although C3 and C4 photosynthesis genes showed similar induction patterns, in G. gynandra, C4 genes were more strongly induced than orthologs from A. thaliana. In vivo binding of TGA and homeodomain as well as light-responsive elements such as G- and I-box motifs were associated with the rapid increase in transcripts of C4 genes. Deletion analysis confirmed that regions containing G- and I-boxes were necessary for high expression. The data support a model in which accumulation of transcripts derived from C4 photosynthesis genes in C4 leaves is enhanced because modifications in cis allowed integration into ancestral transcriptional networks.
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3
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Amy Lyu MJ, Tang Q, Wang Y, Essemine J, Chen F, Ni X, Chen G, Zhu XG. Evolution of gene regulatory network of C 4 photosynthesis in the genus Flaveria reveals the evolutionary status of C 3-C 4 intermediate species. PLANT COMMUNICATIONS 2023; 4:100426. [PMID: 35986514 PMCID: PMC9860191 DOI: 10.1016/j.xplc.2022.100426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis evolved from ancestral C3 photosynthesis by recruiting pre-existing genes to fulfill new functions. The enzymes and transporters required for the C4 metabolic pathway have been intensively studied and well documented; however, the transcription factors (TFs) that regulate these C4 metabolic genes are not yet well understood. In particular, how the TF regulatory network of C4 metabolic genes was rewired during the evolutionary process is unclear. Here, we constructed gene regulatory networks (GRNs) for four closely evolutionarily related species from the genus Flaveria, which represent four different evolutionary stages of C4 photosynthesis: C3 (F. robusta), type I C3-C4 (F. sonorensis), type II C3-C4 (F. ramosissima), and C4 (F. trinervia). Our results show that more than half of the co-regulatory relationships between TFs and core C4 metabolic genes are species specific. The counterparts of the C4 genes in C3 species were already co-regulated with photosynthesis-related genes, whereas the required TFs for C4 photosynthesis were recruited later. The TFs involved in C4 photosynthesis were widely recruited in the type I C3-C4 species; nevertheless, type II C3-C4 species showed a divergent GRN from C4 species. In line with these findings, a 13CO2 pulse-labeling experiment showed that the CO2 initially fixed into C4 acid was not directly released to the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle in the type II C3-C4 species. Therefore, our study uncovered dynamic changes in C4 genes and TF co-regulation during the evolutionary process; furthermore, we showed that the metabolic pathway of the type II C3-C4 species F. ramosissima represents an alternative evolutionary solution to the ammonia imbalance in C3-C4 intermediate species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Ju Amy Lyu
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiming Tang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Yanjie Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Jemaa Essemine
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Faming Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoxiang Ni
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences
| | - Genyun Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin-Guang Zhu
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
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4
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Yanagisawa M, Chuong SDX. Development of C4 Biochemistry and Change in Expression of Markers for Photosystems I and II in the Single-Cell C4 Species, Bienertia sinuspersici. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:77. [PMID: 36616205 PMCID: PMC9824431 DOI: 10.3390/plants12010077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Bienertia sinuspersici is one of four identified terrestrial plants that perform C4 photosynthesis within a single chlorenchyma cell via the compartmentation of organelles and photosynthetic enzymes. The patterns of accumulation of key photosynthetic enzymes and transcripts in developing leaves were examined using immunolocalization and in situ hybridization. The polypeptides of Rubisco large subunit (RbcL) and pyruvate Pi dikinase (PPDK) accumulated equally in all chloroplasts before the formation of two intracellular cytoplasmic compartments: the central (CCC) and peripheral (PCC) cytoplasmic compartments. The differential accumulation of these enzymes was not completed until the leaf had reached maturity, indicating that the transition from C3 to C4 photosynthesis occurred during leaf maturation. In mature chlorenchyma cells, RbcL accumulated 20-fold higher in the CCC than in the PCC, while PPDK exhibited a concentration gradient that was the lowest in the chloroplasts in the central region of the CCC and the highest in PCC chloroplasts. The pattern of rbcL transcript accumulation followed that of its polypeptides in developing leaves, suggesting that the expression of this gene was likely controlled by transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional processes. Immunocytochemical results examining the distribution of photosystems I and II in the chloroplasts of chlorenchyma cells from mature leaves showed that PSII is more abundant in chloroplasts of the central compartment, whereas PSI is higher in those of the peripheral compartment. The quantitative real-time PCR results of rbcL, psbA, and psaB transcripts from the isolated chloroplasts of each compartment further supported this observation. Our results suggest that multiple levels of regulation play a role in controlling the differential accumulation of photosynthetic gene expression in the dimorphic chloroplasts of single-cell C4 species during leaf development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Yanagisawa
- Departments of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Simon D. X. Chuong
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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5
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Górska AM, Gouveia P, Borba AR, Zimmermann A, Serra TS, Carvalho P, Lourenço TF, Oliveira MM, Peterhänsel C, Saibo NJM. ZmOrphan94 Transcription Factor Downregulates ZmPEPC1 Gene Expression in Maize Bundle Sheath Cells. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:559967. [PMID: 33897718 PMCID: PMC8062929 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.559967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Spatial separation of the photosynthetic reactions is a key feature of C4 metabolism. In most C4 plants, this separation requires compartmentation of photosynthetic enzymes between mesophyll (M) and bundle sheath (BS) cells. The upstream region of the gene encoding the maize PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE CARBOXYLASE 1 (ZmPEPC1) has been shown sufficient to drive M-specific ZmPEPC1 gene expression. Although this region has been well characterized, to date, only few trans-factors involved in the ZmPEPC1 gene regulation were identified. Here, using a yeast one-hybrid approach, we have identified three novel maize transcription factors ZmHB87, ZmCPP8, and ZmOrphan94 as binding to the ZmPEPC1 upstream region. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays in maize M protoplasts unveiled that ZmOrphan94 forms homodimers and interacts with ZmCPP8 and with two other ZmPEPC1 regulators previously reported, ZmbHLH80 and ZmbHLH90. Trans-activation assays in maize M protoplasts unveiled that ZmHB87 does not have a clear transcriptional activity, whereas ZmCPP8 and ZmOrphan94 act as activator and repressor, respectively. Moreover, we observed that ZmOrphan94 reduces the trans-activation activity of both activators ZmCPP8 and ZmbHLH90. Using the electromobility shift assay, we showed that ZmOrphan94 binds to several cis-elements present in the ZmPEPC1 upstream region and one of these cis-elements overlaps with the ZmbHLH90 binding site. Gene expression analysis revealed that ZmOrphan94 is preferentially expressed in the BS cells, suggesting that ZmOrphan94 is part of a transcriptional regulatory network downregulating ZmPEPC1 transcript level in the BS cells. Based on both this and our previous work, we propose a model underpinning the importance of a regulatory mechanism within BS cells that contributes to the M-specific ZmPEPC1 gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja M. Górska
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paulo Gouveia
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ana Rita Borba
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Anna Zimmermann
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
- Institut für Botanik, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Tânia S. Serra
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Pedro Carvalho
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Tiago F. Lourenço
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - M. Margarida Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | | | - Nelson J. M. Saibo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
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6
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Abstract
C4 photosynthesis evolved multiple times independently from ancestral C3 photosynthesis in a broad range of flowering land plant families and in both monocots and dicots. The evolution of C4 photosynthesis entails the recruitment of enzyme activities that are not involved in photosynthetic carbon fixation in C3 plants to photosynthesis. This requires a different regulation of gene expression as well as a different regulation of enzyme activities in comparison to the C3 context. Further, C4 photosynthesis relies on a distinct leaf anatomy that differs from that of C3, requiring a differential regulation of leaf development in C4. We summarize recent progress in the understanding of C4-specific features in evolution and metabolic regulation in the context of C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urte Schlüter
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; ,
| | - Andreas P M Weber
- Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Heinrich Heine University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany; ,
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7
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Zhang Y, Giuliani R, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Araujo WL, Wang B, Liu P, Sun Q, Cousins A, Edwards G, Fernie A, Brutnell TP, Li P. Characterization of maize leaf pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase using high throughput sequencing. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2018; 60:670-690. [PMID: 29664234 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.12656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In C4 photosynthesis, pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK) catalyzes the regeneration of phosphoenolpyruvate in the carbon shuttle pathway. Although the biochemical function of PPDK in maize is well characterized, a genetic analysis of PPDK has not been reported. In this study, we use the maize transposable elements Mutator and Ds to generate multiple mutant alleles of PPDK. Loss-of-function mutants are seedling lethal, even when plants were grown under 2% CO2 , and they show very low capacity for CO2 assimilation, indicating C4 photosynthesis is essential in maize. Using RNA-seq and GC-MS technologies, we examined the transcriptional and metabolic responses to a deficiency in PPDK activity. These results indicate loss of PPDK results in downregulation of gene expression of enzymes of the C4 cycle, the Calvin cycle, and components of photochemistry. Furthermore, the loss of PPDK did not change Kranz anatomy, indicating that this metabolic defect in the C4 cycle did not impinge on the morphological differentiation of C4 characters. However, sugar metabolism and nitrogen utilization were altered in the mutants. An interaction between light intensity and genotype was also detected from transcriptome profiling, suggesting altered transcriptional and metabolic responses to environmental and endogenous signals in the PPDK mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuling Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Agronomic Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
| | - Rita Giuliani
- School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Plant Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Youjun Zhang
- Max-Planck-Insitut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam-Golm D-14476, Germany
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Wagner Luiz Araujo
- Max-Planck-Insitut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam-Golm D-14476, Germany
| | - Baichen Wang
- Photosynthesis Research Center, Key Laboratory of Photobiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 20 Nanxincun, Xiangshan, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Statistics, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Qi Sun
- Computational Biology Service Unit, Life Sciences Core Laboratories Center, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA
| | - Asaph Cousins
- School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Plant Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Gerald Edwards
- School of Biological Sciences, Molecular Plant Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA
| | - Alisdair Fernie
- Max-Planck-Insitut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam-Golm D-14476, Germany
| | - Thomas P Brutnell
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, USA
| | - Pinghua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Agronomic Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, 271018, China
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8
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Borba AR, Serra TS, Górska A, Gouveia P, Cordeiro AM, Reyna-Llorens I, Kneřová J, Barros PM, Abreu IA, Oliveira MM, Hibberd JM, Saibo NJM. Synergistic Binding of bHLH Transcription Factors to the Promoter of the Maize NADP-ME Gene Used in C4 Photosynthesis Is Based on an Ancient Code Found in the Ancestral C3 State. Mol Biol Evol 2018; 35:1690-1705. [PMID: 29659975 PMCID: PMC5995220 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis has evolved repeatedly from the ancestral C3 state to generate a carbon concentrating mechanism that increases photosynthetic efficiency. This specialized form of photosynthesis is particularly common in the PACMAD clade of grasses, and is used by many of the world's most productive crops. The C4 cycle is accomplished through cell-type-specific accumulation of enzymes but cis-elements and transcription factors controlling C4 photosynthesis remain largely unknown. Using the NADP-Malic Enzyme (NADP-ME) gene as a model we tested whether mechanisms impacting on transcription in C4 plants evolved from ancestral components found in C3 species. Two basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) transcription factors, ZmbHLH128 and ZmbHLH129, were shown to bind the C4NADP-ME promoter from maize. These proteins form heterodimers and ZmbHLH129 impairs trans-activation by ZmbHLH128. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicate that a pair of cis-elements separated by a seven base pair spacer synergistically bind either ZmbHLH128 or ZmbHLH129. This pair of cis-elements is found in both C3 and C4 Panicoid grass species of the PACMAD clade. Our analysis is consistent with this cis-element pair originating from a single motif present in the ancestral C3 state. We conclude that C4 photosynthesis has co-opted an ancient C3 regulatory code built on G-box recognition by bHLH to regulate the NADP-ME gene. More broadly, our findings also contribute to the understanding of gene regulatory networks controlling C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Borba
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Tânia S Serra
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Alicja Górska
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paulo Gouveia
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - André M Cordeiro
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Ivan Reyna-Llorens
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jana Kneřová
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Pedro M Barros
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Isabel A Abreu
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Maria Margarida Oliveira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Julian M Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Nelson J M Saibo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal
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9
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Reyna-Llorens I, Hibberd JM. Recruitment of pre-existing networks during the evolution of C 4 photosynthesis. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2017; 372:20160386. [PMID: 28808102 PMCID: PMC5566883 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2016.0386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
During C4 photosynthesis, CO2 is concentrated around the enzyme RuBisCO. The net effect is to reduce photorespiration while increasing water and nitrogen use efficiencies. Species that use C4 photosynthesis have evolved independently from their C3 ancestors on more than 60 occasions. Along with mimicry and the camera-like eye, the C4 pathway therefore represents a remarkable example of the repeated evolution of a highly complex trait. In this review, we provide evidence that the polyphyletic evolution of C4 photosynthesis is built upon pre-existing metabolic and genetic networks. For example, cells around veins of C3 species show similarities to those of the C4 bundle sheath in terms of C4 acid decarboxylase activity and also the photosynthetic electron transport chain. Enzymes of C4 photosynthesis function together in gluconeogenesis during early seedling growth of C3Arabidopsis thaliana Furthermore, multiple C4 genes appear to be under control of both light and chloroplast signals in the ancestral C3 state. We, therefore, hypothesize that relatively minor rewiring of pre-existing genetic and metabolic networks has facilitated the recurrent evolution of this trait. Understanding how these changes are likely to have occurred could inform attempts to install C4 traits into C3 crops.This article is part of the themed issue 'Enhancing photosynthesis in crop plants: targets for improvement'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Reyna-Llorens
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Julian M Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
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10
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Gowik U, Schulze S, Saladié M, Rolland V, Tanz SK, Westhoff P, Ludwig M. A MEM1-like motif directs mesophyll cell-specific expression of the gene encoding the C4 carbonic anhydrase in Flaveria. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2017; 68:311-320. [PMID: 28040798 PMCID: PMC5853542 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The first two reactions of C4 photosynthesis are catalysed by carbonic anhydrase (CA) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) in the leaf mesophyll (M) cell cytosol. Translatome experiments using a tagged ribosomal protein expressed under the control of M and bundle-sheath (BS) cell-specific promoters showed transcripts encoding CA3 from the C4 species Flaveria bidentis were highly enriched in polysomes from M cells relative to those of the BS. Localisation experiments employing a CA3-green fluorescent protein fusion protein showed F. bidentis CA3 is a cytosolic enzyme. A motif showing high sequence homology to that of the Flaveria M expression module 1 (MEM1) element was identified approximately 2 kb upstream of the F. bidentis and F. trinervia ca3 translation start sites. MEM1 is located in the promoter of C4 Flaveria ppcA genes, which encode the C4-associated PEPC, and is necessary for M-specific expression. No MEM1-like sequence was found in the 4 kb upstream of the C3 species F. pringlei ca3 translation start site. Promoter-reporter fusion experiments demonstrated the region containing the ca3 MEM1-like element also directs M-specific expression. These results support the idea that a common regulatory switch drives the expression of the C4 Flaveria ca3 and ppcA1 genes specifically in M cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udo Gowik
- Institute of Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefanie Schulze
- Institute of Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Montserrat Saladié
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Vivien Rolland
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Translational Photosynthesis, Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
| | - Sandra K Tanz
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Energy Biology, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
| | - Peter Westhoff
- Institute of Plant Molecular and Developmental Biology, Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Martha Ludwig
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
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11
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Aubry S, Kelly S, Kümpers BMC, Smith-Unna RD, Hibberd JM. Deep evolutionary comparison of gene expression identifies parallel recruitment of trans-factors in two independent origins of C4 photosynthesis. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004365. [PMID: 24901697 PMCID: PMC4046924 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
With at least 60 independent origins spanning monocotyledons and dicotyledons, the C4 photosynthetic pathway represents one of the most remarkable examples of convergent evolution. The recurrent evolution of this highly complex trait involving alterations to leaf anatomy, cell biology and biochemistry allows an increase in productivity by ∼ 50% in tropical and subtropical areas. The extent to which separate lineages of C4 plants use the same genetic networks to maintain C4 photosynthesis is unknown. We developed a new informatics framework to enable deep evolutionary comparison of gene expression in species lacking reference genomes. We exploited this to compare gene expression in species representing two independent C4 lineages (Cleome gynandra and Zea mays) whose last common ancestor diverged ∼ 140 million years ago. We define a cohort of 3,335 genes that represent conserved components of leaf and photosynthetic development in these species. Furthermore, we show that genes encoding proteins of the C4 cycle are recruited into networks defined by photosynthesis-related genes. Despite the wide evolutionary separation and independent origins of the C4 phenotype, we report that these species use homologous transcription factors to both induce C4 photosynthesis and to maintain the cell specific gene expression required for the pathway to operate. We define a core molecular signature associated with leaf and photosynthetic maturation that is likely shared by angiosperm species derived from the last common ancestor of the monocotyledons and dicotyledons. We show that deep evolutionary comparisons of gene expression can reveal novel insight into the molecular convergence of highly complex phenotypes and that parallel evolution of trans-factors underpins the repeated appearance of C4 photosynthesis. Thus, exploitation of extant natural variation associated with complex traits can be used to identify regulators. Moreover, the transcription factors that are shared by independent C4 lineages are key targets for engineering the C4 pathway into C3 crops such as rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Aubry
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Steven Kelly
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Britta M. C. Kümpers
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Julian M. Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Ludwig M. Evolution of the C4 photosynthetic pathway: events at the cellular and molecular levels. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2013; 117:147-61. [PMID: 23708978 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-013-9853-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The biochemistry and leaf anatomy of plants using C4 photosynthesis promote the concentration of atmospheric CO2 in leaf tissue that leads to improvements in growth and yield of C4 plants over C3 species in hot, dry, high light, and/or saline environments. C4 plants like maize and sugarcane are significant food, fodder, and bioenergy crops. The C4 photosynthetic pathway is an excellent example of convergent evolution, having evolved in multiple independent lineages of land plants from ancestors employing C3 photosynthesis. In addition to C3 and C4 species, some plant lineages contain closely related C3-C4 intermediate species that demonstrate leaf anatomical, biochemical, and physiological characteristics between those of C3 plants and species using C4 photosynthesis. These groups of plants have been extremely useful in dissecting the modifications to leaf anatomy and molecular biology, which led to the evolution of C4 photosynthesis. It is now clear that great variation exists in C4 leaf anatomy, and diverse molecular mechanisms underlie C4 biochemistry and physiology. However, all these different paths have led to the same destination-the expression of a C4 CO2 concentrating mechanism. Further identification of C4 leaf anatomical traits and molecular biological components, and understanding how they are controlled and assembled will not only allow for additional insights into evolutionary convergence, but also contribute to sustainable food and bioenergy production strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martha Ludwig
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia,
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13
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Williams BP, Aubry S, Hibberd JM. Molecular evolution of genes recruited into C₄ photosynthesis. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 17:213-20. [PMID: 22326564 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 01/12/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2012] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The C₄ pathway is found in 62 lineages of land plants. We assess evidence for parallel versus convergent evolution of C₄ photosynthesis from three approaches: (i) studies of specific genes and cis-elements controlling their expression; (ii) phylogenetic analyses of mRNAs and inferred amino acid sequences; and (iii) analysis of C₃ and C₄ genomes and transcriptomes. Evidence suggests that although convergent evolution is common, parallel evolution can underlie both changes to gene expression and amino acid sequence. cis-elements that direct cell specificity in C₄ leaves are present in C₃ orthologues of genes recruited into C₄, probably facilitating this parallel evolution. From this, and genomic data, we propose that gene duplication followed by neofunctionalisation is not necessarily important in the evolution of C₄ biochemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben P Williams
- Department of Plant Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
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14
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Tolley BJ, Woodfield H, Wanchana S, Bruskiewich R, Hibberd JM. Light-regulated and cell-specific methylation of the maize PEPC promoter. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:1381-90. [PMID: 22143916 PMCID: PMC3276097 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Revised: 10/10/2011] [Accepted: 10/21/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms governing PEPC expression in maize remain to be fully defined. Differential methylation of a region in the PEPC promoter has been shown to correlate with transcript accumulation, however, to date, investigations into the role of DNA methylation in maize PEPC expression have relied on the use of methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes. Bisulphite sequencing was used here to provide a single-base resolution methylation map of the maize PEPC promoter. It is shown that four cytosine residues in the PEPC promoter are heavily methylated in maize root tissue. In leaves, de-methylation of these cytosines is dependent on illumination and is coincident with elevated PEPC expression. Furthermore, light-regulated de-methylation of these cytosines occurs only in mesophyll cells. No methylation was discovered in the 0.6 kb promoter required for mesophyll-specific expression indicating that cytosine methylation is not required to direct the cell-specificity of PEPC expression. This raises interesting questions regarding the function of the cell-specific cytosine de-methylation observed in the upstream region of the PEPC promoter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben J. Tolley
- Department of Plant Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Helen Woodfield
- Department of Plant Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
| | - Samart Wanchana
- International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Richard Bruskiewich
- International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
| | - Julian M. Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
- To whom the correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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15
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Miyao M, Masumoto C, Miyazawa SI, Fukayama H. Lessons from engineering a single-cell C(4) photosynthetic pathway into rice. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2011; 62:3021-9. [PMID: 21459764 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The transfer of C(4) plant traits into C(3) plants has long been a strategy for improving the photosynthetic performance of C(3) plants. The introduction of a pathway mimicking the C(4) photosynthetic pathway into the mesophyll cells of C(3) plants was only a realistic approach when transgenic technology was sufficiently well developed and widely adopted. Here an attempt to introduce a single-cell C(4)-like pathway in which CO(2) capture and release occur in the mesophyll cell, such as the one found in the aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle, into rice (Oryza sativa L.) is described. Four enzymes involved in this pathway were successfully overproduced in the transgenic rice leaves, and 12 different sets of transgenic rice that overproduce these enzymes independently or in combination were produced and analysed. Although none of these transformants has yet shown dramatic improvements in photosynthesis, these studies nonetheless have important implications for the evolution of C(4) photosynthetic genes and their metabolic regulation, and have shed light on the unique aspects of rice physiology and metabolism. This article summarizes the lessons learned during these attempts to engineer single-cell C(4) rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsue Miyao
- Photobiology and Photosynthesis Research Unit, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai, Tsukuba 305-8602, Japan.
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16
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17
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Hibberd JM, Covshoff S. The regulation of gene expression required for C4 photosynthesis. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT BIOLOGY 2010; 61:181-207. [PMID: 20192753 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 163] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
C(4) photosynthesis is normally associated with the compartmentation of photosynthesis between mesophyll (M) and bundle sheath (BS) cells. The mechanisms regulating the differential accumulation of photosynthesis proteins in these specialized cells are fundamental to our understanding of how C(4) photosynthesis operates. Cell-specific accumulation of proteins in M or BS can be mediated by posttranscriptional processes and translational efficiency as well as by differences in transcription. Individual genes are likely regulated at multiple levels. Although cis-elements have been associated with cell-specific expression in C(4) leaves, there has been little progress in identifying trans-factors. When C(4) photosynthesis genes from C(4) species are placed in closely related C(3) species, they are often expressed in a manner faithful to the C(4) cycle. Next-generation sequencing and comprehensive analysis of the extent to which genes from C(4) species are expressed in M or BS cells of C(3) plants should provide insight into how the C(4) pathway is regulated and evolved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian M Hibberd
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
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18
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Engelmann S, Wiludda C, Burscheidt J, Gowik U, Schlue U, Koczor M, Streubel M, Cossu R, Bauwe H, Westhoff P. The gene for the P-subunit of glycine decarboxylase from the C4 species Flaveria trinervia: analysis of transcriptional control in transgenic Flaveria bidentis (C4) and Arabidopsis (C3). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 146:1773-85. [PMID: 18305210 PMCID: PMC2287349 DOI: 10.1104/pp.107.114462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2007] [Accepted: 02/17/2008] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Glycine decarboxylase (GDC) plays an important role in the photorespiratory metabolism of plants. GDC is composed of four subunits (P, H, L, and T) with the P-subunit (GLDP) serving as the actual decarboxylating unit. In C(3) plants, GDC can be found in all photosynthetic cells, whereas in leaves of C(3)-C(4) intermediate and C(4) species its occurrence is restricted to bundle-sheath cells. The specific expression of GLDP in bundle-sheath cells might have constituted a biochemical starting point for the evolution of C(4) photosynthesis. To understand the molecular mechanisms responsible for restricting GLDP expression to bundle-sheath cells, we performed a functional analysis of the GLDPA promoter from the C(4) species Flaveria trinervia. Expression of a promoter-reporter gene fusion in transgenic plants of the transformable C(4) species Flaveria bidentis (C(4)) showed that 1,571 bp of the GLDPA 5' flanking region contain all the necessary information for the specific expression in bundle-sheath cells and vascular bundles. Interestingly, we found that the GLDPA promoter of F. trinervia exhibits a C(4)-like spatial activity also in the C(3) plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), indicating that a mechanism for bundle-sheath-specific expression is also present in this C(3) species. Using transgenic Arabidopsis, promoter deletion studies identified two regions in the GLDPA promoter, one conferring repression of gene expression in mesophyll cells and one functioning as a general transcriptional enhancer. Subsequent analyses in transgenic F. bidentis confirmed that these two segments fulfill the same function also in the C(4) context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sascha Engelmann
- Institut für Entwicklungs- und Molekularbiologie der Pflanzen, Heinrich-Heine-Universität, 40225 Duesseldorf, Germany
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19
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Abstract
Maize may be transformed very efficiently using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated methods. The most critical factor in the transformation protocol is the co-cultivation of healthy immature embryos of the correct developmental stage with A. tumefaciens; the embryos should be collected only from vigorous plants grown in well-conditioned glasshouses. With the protocol described here, approximately 50% of immature embryos from the inbred line A188 and 15% from inbred lines A634, H99 and W117 will produce transformants. About half of the transformed plants are expected to carry one or two copies of the transgenes, which are inherited by the progeny in a mendelian fashion. More than 90% of transformants are expected to be normal in morphology. The protocol takes about 3 months from the start of co-cultivation to the planting of transformants into pots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Ishida
- Plant Innovation Center, Japan Tobacco Inc., 700 Higashibara, Iwata, Shizuoka, Japan.
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20
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Patel M, Siegel AJ, Berry JO. Untranslated regions of FbRbcS1 mRNA mediate bundle sheath cell-specific gene expression in leaves of a C4 plant. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:25485-91. [PMID: 16803877 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m604162200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis typically requires two specialized leaf cell types, bundle sheath (bs) and mesophyll (mp), which provide the foundation for this highly efficient carbon assimilation pathway. In leaves of Flaveria bidentis, a dicotyledonous C4 plant, ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (rubisco) accumulates only in bs cells surrounding the vascular centers and not in mp cells. This is in contrast to the more common C3 plants, which accumulate rubisco in all photosynthetic cells. Many previous studies have focused on transcriptional control of C4 cell type-specificity; however, post-transcriptional regulation has also been implicated in the bs-specific expression of genes encoding the rubisco subunits. In this current study, a biolistic leaf transformation assay has provided direct evidence that the 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions (UTRs) of F. bidentis FbRbcS1 mRNA (from a nuclear gene encoding the rubisco small subunit), in themselves, confer strong bs cell-specific expression to gfpA reporter gene transcripts when transcribed from a constitutive CaMV promoter. In transformed leaf regions, strong bs cell-specific GFP expression was accompanied by corresponding bs cell-specific accumulation of the constitutively transcribed FbRbcS1 5'-UTR-gfpA-3'-UTR mRNAs. Control constructs lacking any RbcS mRNA sequences were expressed in all leaf cell types. These findings demonstrate that characteristic cell type-specific FbRbcS1 expression patterns in C4 leaves can be established entirely by sequences contained within the transcribed UTRs of FbRbcS1 mRNAs. We conclude that selective transcript stabilization (in bs cells) or degradation (in mp cells) plays a key role in determining bs cell-specific localization of the rubisco enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minesh Patel
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, USA
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21
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Nomura M, Higuchi T, Ishida Y, Ohta S, Komari T, Imaizumi N, Miyao-Tokutomi M, Matsuoka M, Tajima S. Differential expression pattern of C4 bundle sheath expression genes in rice, a C3 plant. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 46:754-61. [PMID: 15753103 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pci078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-ME) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PCK) are specifically expressed in bundle sheath cells (BSCs) in NADP-ME-type and PCK-type C4 plants, respectively. Unlike the high activities of these enzymes in the green leaves of C4 plants, their low activities have been detected in the leaves of C3 plants. In order to elucidate the differences in the gene expression system between C3 and C4 plants, we have produced chimeric constructs with the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene under the control of the maize NADP-Me (ZmMe) or Zoysia japonica Pck (ZjPck) promoter and introduced these constructs into rice. In leaves of transgenic rice, the ZmMe promoter directed GUS expression not only in mesophyll cells (MCs) but also in BSCs and vascular cells, whereas the ZjPck promoter directed GUS expression only in BSCs and vascular cells. Neither the ZjPck nor ZmMe promoters induced GUS expression due to light. In rice leaves, the endogenous NADP-Me (OsMe1) was expressed in MCs, BSCs and vascular cells, whereas the rice Pck (OsPck1) was expressed only in BSCs and vascular cells. Taken together, the results obtained from transgenic rice demonstrate that the expression pattern of ZmMe or ZjPck in transgenic rice was reflected by that of its counterpart gene in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Nomura
- Faculty of Agriculture, Kagawa University, Miki, Kita, Kagawa, 761-0795 Japan.
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22
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Nomura M, Higuchi T, Katayama K, Taniguchi M, Miyao-Tokutomi M, Matsuoka M, Tajima S. The promoter for C4-type mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase does not direct bundle sheath-specific expression in transgenic rice plants. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 46:743-753. [PMID: 15753104 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pci077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
For NAD-malic enzyme (NAD-ME)-type C4 photosynthesis, two types of aspartate aminotransferase (AAT) are involved. We examined the expression pattern of the Panicum miliaceum mitochondrial Aat gene (PmAat) and P. miliaceum cytosolic Aat gene (PcAat) in transgenic rice plants, which were specifically expressed in bundle sheath cells (BSCs) and mesophyll cells (MCs), respectively. Expression of a beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene under the control of the PcAat promoter was regulated in an organ-preferential and light-dependent manner in the transgenic rice plants. However, the PmAat promoter drove the GUS expression in all organs we tested without light dependency, and this non-preferential expression pattern was also observed in transgenic rice with introduction of the intact PmAat gene. The expression patterns of the rice counterpart Aat genes to PmAat or PcAat showed that the rice mitochondrial Aat (RmAat1) gene was expressed in all organs tested in a light-independent manner, while expression of the rice cytosolic Aat (RcAat1) gene showed an organ-preferential and light-dependent pattern. Taking these results together, we can generalize that the regulatory system of BSC-specific or light-dependent expression of mitochondrial Aat is not shared between P. miliaceum (C4) and rice (C3) and that the expression of the C4 genes introduced into rice mimics that of their counterpart genes in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mika Nomura
- Faculty of Agriculture, Kagawa University, Miki, Kita, Kagawa, 761-0795 Japan
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Brown NJ, Parsley K, Hibberd JM. The future of C4 research--maize, Flaveria or Cleome? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2005; 10:215-21. [PMID: 15882653 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2005.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
C4 photosynthesis has evolved multiple times among the angiosperms: the spatial rearrangement of the photosynthetic apparatus, combined with alterations to the leaf structure, allows CO2 to be concentrated around Rubisco. Higher CO2 concentrations at Rubisco decrease the rate of oxygenation and therefore reduce the amount of energy lost through photorespiration. C4 plants are particularly prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions because they can sustain higher rates of net photosynthesis; they also represent some of our most productive crops. To date, most progress in identifying genes crucial for C4 photosynthesis has been made using maize and Flaveria. We propose that Cleome, the most closely related genus containing C4 species to the C3 model Arabidopsis, be used together with Arabidopsis resources to accelerate our progress in elucidating the genetic basis of C4 photosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi J Brown
- Department of Plant Sciences, Downing Street, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK CB2 3EA
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Patel M, Corey AC, Yin LP, Ali S, Taylor WC, Berry JO. Untranslated regions from C4 amaranth AhRbcS1 mRNAs confer translational enhancement and preferential bundle sheath cell expression in transgenic C4 Flaveria bidentis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2004; 136:3550-61. [PMID: 15489276 PMCID: PMC527154 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.051508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2004] [Revised: 09/07/2004] [Accepted: 09/07/2004] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Many aspects of photosynthetic gene expression are posttranscriptionally regulated in C4 plants. To determine if RbcS mRNA untranslated regions (UTRs) in themselves could confer any characteristic C4 expression patterns, 5'- and 3'-UTRs of AhRbcS1 mRNA from the C4 dicot amaranth were linked to a gusA reporter gene. These were constitutively transcribed from a cauliflower mosaic virus promoter and assayed for posttranscriptional expression patterns in transgenic lines of the C4 dicot Flaveria bidentis. Three characteristic C4 expression patterns were conferred by heterologous AhRbcS1 UTRs in transgenic F. bidentis. First, the AhRbcS1 UTRs conferred strong translational enhancement of gusA expression, relative to control constructs lacking these UTRs. Second, while the UTRs did not appear to confer tissue-specific expression when analyzed by beta-glucuronidase activity assays, differences in gusA mRNA accumulation were observed in leaves, stems, and roots. Third, the AhRbcS1 UTRs conferred preferential gusA expression (enzyme activity and gusA mRNA accumulation) in leaf bundle sheath cells. AhRbcS1 UTR-mediated translational enhancement was also observed in transgenic C3 plants (tobacco [Nicotiana tabacum]) and in in vitro translation extracts. These mRNAs appear to be translated with different efficiencies in C4 versus C3 plants, indicating that processes determining overall translational efficiency may vary between these two categories of higher plants. Our findings suggest that the AhRbcS1 5'-UTR functions as a strong translational enhancer in leaves and other tissues, and may work synergistically with the 3'-UTR to modulate overall levels of Rubisco gene expression in different tissues and cell types of C4 plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minesh Patel
- Department of Biological Sciences, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14120, USA
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25
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Nakagawa T, Takane K, Sugimoto T, Izui K, Kouchi H, Hata S. Regulatory regions and nuclear factors involved in nodule-enhanced expression of a soybean phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene: implications for molecular evolution. Mol Genet Genomics 2003; 269:163-72. [PMID: 12684874 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-002-0794-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2002] [Accepted: 12/04/2002] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We have determined the genomic organization of two closely related phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase genes in soybean, GmPEPC7, which is expressed at high levels in root nodules, and the housekeeping gene GmPEPC15. Their nucleotide sequences, including most introns and 5;-flanking regions within 600 bp upstream from the transcription start sites, are well conserved, suggesting that they were duplicated quite recently. To gain insights into the process of evolution of the tissue-specifically expressed GmPEPC7gene, we produced chimeric constructs carrying either the GmPEPC7or GmPEPC15promoter fused to the beta-glucuronidase gene. The expression patterns of the reporter observed in nodules that developed on transgenic hairy roots reflected the levels of mRNA levels produced by the genes in wild-type soybean plants, indicating that the GmPEPC7promoter directs nodule-specific expression. Loss-of-function experiments showed that the segment of GmPEPC7between -466 and -400, designated as the "switch region" (SR), was necessary for expression in nodules, although proteins that bind to SR were not detectable in a gel-retardation assay. Another gel-retardation assay indicated that putative nodule nuclear proteins bind specifically to the region of GmPEPC7between -400 and -318, designated as the "amplifier region" (AR). Both SR and AR have characteristic sequences that are not found in the GmPEPC15promoter. Furthermore, experiments using hybrid promoters derived from GmPEPC15demonstrated that AR confers high-level expression in nodules only in combination with SR. When wild-type soybean plants were subjected to prolonged darkness and subsequently illuminated, the level of GmPEPC7mRNA in nodules decreased and then recovered. This study suggests that the acquisition of two interdependent cis-acting elements resulted in molecular evolution of the nodule-enhanced GmPEPC7gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Nakagawa
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo-ku, Japan
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26
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Lieman-Hurwitz J, Rachmilevitch S, Mittler R, Marcus Y, Kaplan A. Enhanced photosynthesis and growth of transgenic plants that express ictB, a gene involved in HCO3- accumulation in cyanobacteria. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2003; 1:43-50. [PMID: 17147679 DOI: 10.1046/j.1467-7652.2003.00003.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum plants that express ictB, a gene involved in HCO3- accumulation within the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942, exhibited significantly faster photosynthetic rates than the wild-types under limiting but not under saturating CO2 concentrations. Under conditions of low relative humidity, growth of the transgenic A. thaliana plants was considerably faster than the wild-type. This enhancement of growth was not observed under humid conditions. There was no difference in the amount of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) detected in the wild-types and their respective transgenic plants. Following activation in vitro, the activities of RubisCO from either low- or high-humidity-grown transgenic plants were similar to those observed in the wild-types. In contrast, the in vivo RubisCO activity, i.e. without prior activation, in plants grown under low humidity was considerably higher in ictB-expressing plants than in their wild-types. The CO2 compensation point in the transgenic plants that express ictB was lower than in the wild-types, suggesting that the concentration of CO2 in close proximity to RubisCO was higher. This may explain the higher activation level of RubisCO and enhanced photosynthetic activities and growth in the transgenic plants. These data indicated a potential use of ictB for the stimulation of crop yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy Lieman-Hurwitz
- Department of Plant Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 91904 Jerusalem, Israel
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27
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Miyao M. Molecular evolution and genetic engineering of C4 photosynthetic enzymes. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2003; 54:179-189. [PMID: 12493846 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erg026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The majority of terrestrial plants, including many important crops such as rice, wheat, soybean, and potato, are classified as C(3) plants that assimilate atmospheric CO(2) directly through the C(3) photosynthetic pathway. C(4) plants, such as maize and sugarcane, evolved from C(3) plants, acquiring the C(4) photosynthetic pathway in addition to the C(3) pathway to achieve high photosynthetic performance and high water- and nitrogen-use efficiencies. Consequently, the transfer of C(4) traits to C(3) plants is one strategy being adopted for improving the photosynthetic performance of C(3) plants. The recent application of recombinant DNA technology has made considerable progress in the molecular engineering of photosynthetic genes in the past ten years. It has deepened understanding of the evolutionary scenario of the C(4) photosynthetic genes. The strategy, based on the evolutionary scenario, has enabled enzymes involved in the C(4) pathway to be expressed at high levels and in desired locations in the leaves of C(3) plants. Although overproduction of a single C(4) enzyme can alter the carbon metabolism of C(3) plants, it does not show any positive effects on photosynthesis. Transgenic C(3) plants overproducing multiple enzymes are now being produced for improving the photosynthetic performance of C(3) plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsue Miyao
- Photosynthesis Laboratory, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Kannondai, Tsukuba 305-8602, Japan.
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Matsuoka M, Furbank RT, Fukayama H, Miyao M. MOLECULAR ENGINEERING OF C4 PHOTOSYNTHESIS. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 52:297-314. [PMID: 11337400 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.52.1.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The majority of terrestrial plants, including many important crops such as rice, wheat, soybean, and potato, are classified as C3 plants that assimilate atmospheric CO2 directly through the C3 photosynthetic pathway. C4 plants such as maize and sugarcane evolved from C3 plants, acquiring the C4 photosynthetic pathway to achieve high photosynthetic performance and high water- and nitrogen-use efficiencies. The recent application of recombinant DNA technology has made considerable progress in the molecular engineering of C4 photosynthesis over the past several years. It has deepened our understanding of the mechanism of C4 photosynthesis and provided valuable information as to the evolution of the C4 photosynthetic genes. It also has enabled us to express enzymes involved in the C4 pathway at high levels and in desired locations in the leaves of C3 plants for engineering of primary carbon metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Matsuoka
- BioScience Center, Nagoya University, Nagoya Chikusa, 464-8601, Japan; e-mail: , CSIRO Plant Industry, G.P.O. Box 1600, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia; e-mail: , Laboratory of Photosynthesis, National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Kannondai, Tsukuba 305-8602, Japan; e-mail:
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