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Scirè A, Casari G, Romaldi B, de Bari L, Antognelli C, Armeni T. Glutathionyl Hemoglobin and Its Emerging Role as a Clinical Biomarker of Chronic Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1976. [PMID: 38001829 PMCID: PMC10669486 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12111976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemoglobin is one of the proteins that are more susceptible to S-glutathionylation and the levels of its modified form, glutathionyl hemoglobin (HbSSG), increase in several human pathological conditions. The scope of the present review is to provide knowledge about how hemoglobin is subjected to S-glutathionylation and how this modification affects its functionality. The different diseases that showed increased levels of HbSSG and the methods used for its quantification in clinical investigations will be also outlined. Since there is a growing need for precise and reliable methods for markers of oxidative stress in human blood, this review highlights how HbSSG is emerging more and more as a good indicator of severe oxidative stress but also as a key pathogenic factor in several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scirè
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences (Di.S.V.A.), Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Giulia Casari
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Brenda Romaldi
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Lidia de Bari
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), National Research Council (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Cinzia Antognelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Degli Studi di Perugia, 06129 Perugia, Italy;
| | - Tatiana Armeni
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
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Garavaglia ML, Giustarini D, Colombo G, Reggiani F, Finazzi S, Calatroni M, Landoni L, Portinaro NM, Milzani A, Badalamenti S, Rossi R, Dalle-Donne I. Blood Thiol Redox State in Chronic Kidney Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052853. [PMID: 35269995 PMCID: PMC8911004 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Thiols (sulfhydryl groups) are effective antioxidants that can preserve the correct structure of proteins, and can protect cells and tissues from damage induced by oxidative stress. Abnormal levels of thiols have been measured in the blood of patients with moderate-to-severe chronic kidney disease (CKD) compared to healthy subjects, as well as in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients on haemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. The levels of protein thiols (a measure of the endogenous antioxidant capacity inversely related to protein oxidation) and S-thiolated proteins (mixed disulphides of protein thiols and low molecular mass thiols), and the protein thiolation index (the molar ratio of the S-thiolated proteins to free protein thiols in plasma) have been investigated in the plasma or red blood cells of CKD and ESRD patients as possible biomarkers of oxidative stress. This type of minimally invasive analysis provides valuable information on the redox status of the less-easily accessible tissues and organs, and of the whole organism. This review provides an overview of reversible modifications in protein thiols in the setting of CKD and renal replacement therapy. The evidence suggests that protein thiols, S-thiolated proteins, and the protein thiolation index are promising biomarkers of reversible oxidative stress that could be included in the routine monitoring of CKD and ESRD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Lisa Garavaglia
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.L.G.); (G.C.); (L.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), University of Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy;
| | - Graziano Colombo
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.L.G.); (G.C.); (L.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Francesco Reggiani
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy or (F.R.); (S.F.); or (M.C.); (S.B.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Finazzi
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy or (F.R.); (S.F.); or (M.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Marta Calatroni
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy or (F.R.); (S.F.); or (M.C.); (S.B.)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, 20090 Milan, Italy
| | - Lucia Landoni
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.L.G.); (G.C.); (L.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Nicola Marcello Portinaro
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy;
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.L.G.); (G.C.); (L.L.); (A.M.)
| | - Salvatore Badalamenti
- Nephrology and Dialysis Unit, IRCCS Humanitas Research Hospital, Via Manzoni 56, Rozzano, 20089 Milan, Italy or (F.R.); (S.F.); or (M.C.); (S.B.)
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), University of Siena, Via A. Moro 2, 53100 Siena, Italy;
- Correspondence: (R.R.); (I.D.-D.)
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018–2022), Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy; (M.L.G.); (G.C.); (L.L.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence: (R.R.); (I.D.-D.)
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Giustarini D, Milzani A, Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R. Measurement of S-glutathionylated proteins by HPLC. Amino Acids 2021; 54:675-686. [PMID: 34129091 PMCID: PMC9117368 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-021-03015-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
S-glutathionylated proteins (GSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with glutathione (GSH), are considered a suitable biomarker of oxidative stress. In fact, they occur within cells at low level and their concentration increases markedly under pro-oxidant conditions. Plasma is something different, since it is physiologically rich in S-thiolated proteins (RSSP), i.e., protein-mixed disulfides with various types of low molecular mass thiols (LMM-SH). However, albumin, which is largely the most abundant plasma protein, possesses a cysteine residue at position 34 that is mostly reduced (about 60%) under physiological conditions, but easily involved in the formation of additional RSSP in the presence of oxidants. The quantification of GSSP requires special attention to sample handling, since their level can be overestimated as a result of artefactual oxidation of GSH. We have developed the present protocol to avoid this methodological problem. Samples should be treated as soon as possible after their collection with the alkylating agent N-ethylmaleimide that masks –SH groups and prevents their oxidation. The GSH released from mixed disulfides by reduction with dithiothreitol is then labeled with the fluorescent probe monobromobimane and quantified by HPLC. The method can be applied to many different biological samples, comprising blood components, red blood cell plasma membrane, cultured cells, and solid organs from animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy.
| | - Aldo Milzani
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biosciences (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Università Degli Studi Di Milano, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ranieri Rossi
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy (Department of Excellence 2018-2022), Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
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Rubino FM. The Redox Potential of the β- 93-Cysteine Thiol Group in Human Hemoglobin Estimated from In Vitro Oxidant Challenge Experiments. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26092528. [PMID: 33926119 PMCID: PMC8123695 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathionyl hemoglobin is a minor form of hemoglobin with intriguing properties. The measurement of the redox potential of its reactive β-93-Cysteine is useful to improve understanding of the response of erythrocytes to transient and chronic conditions of oxidative stress, where the level of glutathionyl hemoglobin is increased. An independent literature experiment describes the recovery of human erythrocytes exposed to an oxidant burst by measuring glutathione, glutathione disulfide and glutathionyl hemoglobin in a two-hour period. This article calculates a value for the redox potential E0 of the β-93-Cysteine, considering the erythrocyte as a closed system at equilibrium described by the Nernst equation and using the measurements of the literature experiment. The obtained value of E0 of −121 mV at pH 7.4 places hemoglobin as the most oxidizing thiol of the erythrocyte. By using as synthetic indicators of the concentrations the electrochemical potentials of the two main redox pairs in the erythrocytes, those of glutathione–glutathione disulfide and of glutathionyl–hemoglobin, the mechanism of the recovery phase can be hypothesized. Hemoglobin acts as the redox buffer that scavenges oxidized glutathione in the oxidative phase and releases it in the recovery phase, by acting as the substrate of the NAD(P)H-cofactored enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Maria Rubino
- LaTMA Laboratory for Analytical Toxicology and Metabonomics, Department of Health Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano at "Ospedale San Paolo" v. A. di Rudinì 8, I-20142 Milano, Italy
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Role of protein S-Glutathionylation in cancer progression and development of resistance to anti-cancer drugs. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 704:108890. [PMID: 33894196 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The survival, functioning and proliferation of mammalian cells are highly dependent on the cellular response and adaptation to changes in their redox environment. Cancer cells often live in an altered redox environment due to aberrant neo-vasculature, metabolic reprogramming and dysregulated proliferation. Thus, redox adaptations are critical for their survival. Glutathione plays an essential role in maintaining redox homeostasis inside the cells by binding to redox-sensitive cysteine residues in proteins by a process called S-glutathionylation. S-Glutathionylation not only protects the labile cysteine residues from oxidation, but also serves as a sensor of redox status, and acts as a signal for stimulation of downstream processes and adaptive responses to ensure redox equilibrium. The present review aims to provide an updated overview of the role of the unique redox adaptations during carcinogenesis and cancer progression, focusing on their dependence on S-glutathionylation of specific redox-sensitive proteins involved in a wide range of processes including signalling, transcription, structural maintenance, mitochondrial functions, apoptosis and protein recycling. We also provide insights into the role of S-glutathionylation in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Finally, we provide a strong rationale for the development of redox targeting drugs for treatment of refractory/resistant cancers.
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Breath analysis as promising indicator of hemodialysis efficiency. Clin Exp Nephrol 2018; 23:251-257. [PMID: 30121801 DOI: 10.1007/s10157-018-1625-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The measurement of trimethylamine and isoprene in exhaled breath collected from dialysed patients indicates the changes in concentration of both compounds during dialysis. The aim of the presented study was to confirm diagnostic usefulness of TMA and isoprene detected in breath, as potential biomarkers of hemodialysis efficiency. METHODS The samples of exhaled breath were collected from 22 dialyzed patients (9 women, 13 men) before and after hemodialysis (HD). All analyses were carried out using a gas chromatograph equipped with a mass spectrometer. Thermal desorption was used as breath sample enrichment method. RESULTS Chromatographic analysis of breath samples indicated statistically significant differences in trimethylamine (TMA) and 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene) concentrations in patients' breath collected before and after HD. TMA concentrations measured in breath samples, before dialysis, ranged from 0.024 to 0.461 nmol/L. After dialysis, the values of detected TMA were lower versus output values and ranged from 0.008 to 0.050 nmol/L. Isoprene concentrations before dialysis were present in the range from 0.236 to 9.718 nmol/L, after dialysis in the range from 0.478 to 26.182 nmol/L. Additionally, the dependences of TMA and isoprene concentrations, detected in breath with renal efficiency parameters detected in blood, were studied. The relationships between TMA and urea (r = 0.67; p < 0.00001) and creatinine (r = 0.61; p = 0.00002) were checked. In case of isoprene considerably higher concentrations were observed after dialysis, but no statistically significant correlation of isoprene with blood parameters was noticed. CONCLUSION The observed decrease of TMA concentrations during dialysis could be useful as a measure of dialysis efficiency. The explanation of isoprene increase in breath during dialysis requires further investigation.
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Oxidative Stress in Patients Undergoing Peritoneal Dialysis: A Current Review of the Literature. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2017; 2017:3494867. [PMID: 29750088 PMCID: PMC5892210 DOI: 10.1155/2017/3494867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients manifest excessive oxidative stress (OS) compared to the general population and predialysis chronic kidney disease patients, mainly due to the composition of the PD solution (high-glucose content, low pH, elevated osmolality, increased lactate concentration and glucose degradation products). However, PD could be considered a more biocompatible form of dialysis compared to hemodialysis (HD), since several studies showed that the latter results in an excess accumulation of oxidative products and loss of antioxidants. OS in PD is tightly linked with chronic inflammation, atherogenesis, peritoneal fibrosis, and loss of residual renal function. Although exogenous supplementation of antioxidants, such as vitamins E and C, N-acetylcysteine, and carotenoids, in some cases showed potential beneficial effects in PD patients, relevant recommendations have not been yet adopted in everyday clinical practice.
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Harper VM, Oh JY, Stapley R, Marques MB, Wilson L, Barnes S, Sun CW, Townes T, Patel RP. Peroxiredoxin-2 recycling is inhibited during erythrocyte storage. Antioxid Redox Signal 2015; 22:294-307. [PMID: 25264713 PMCID: PMC4298151 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2014.5950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Transfusion with stored red blood cells (RBCs) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx-2) is a primary RBC antioxidant that limits hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-mediated toxicity. Whether Prx-2 activity is altered during RBC storage is not known. RESULTS Basal and H2O2-induced Prx-2 activity was measured in RBCs (stored for 7-35 days). Basal Prx-2 thiol oxidation increased with RBC age, whereas H2O2-dependent formation of dimeric Prx-2 was similar. However, reduction of Prx-2 dimers to monomers became progressively slower with RBC storage, which was associated with increased H2O2-induced hemolysis. Surprisingly, no change in the NADPH-dependent thioredoxin (Trx)/Trx-reductase system, which recycles dimeric Prx-2, was observed in stored RBCs. Using mouse RBCs expressing human wild type (β93Cys) or hemoglobin (Hb) in which the conserved β93Cys residue is replaced by Ala (β93Ala), a role for this thiol in modulating Prx-2 reduction was demonstrated. Specifically, Prx-2 recycling was blunted in β93Ala RBC, which was reversed by carbon monoxide-treatment, suggesting that heme autoxidation-derived H2O2 maintains Prx-2 in the oxidized form in these cells. Moreover, assessment of the oxidative state of the β93Cys in RBCs during storage showed that while it remained reduced on intraerythrocytic Hb in stored RBC, it was oxidized to dehydroalanine on hemolyzed or extracellular Hb. INNOVATION A novel mechanism for regulated Prx-2 activity in RBC via the β93Cys residue is suggested. CONCLUSION These data highlight the potential for slower Prx-2 recycling and β93Cys oxidation in modulating storage-dependent damage of RBCs and in mediating post-transfusion toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria M Harper
- 1 Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham , Birmingham, Alabama
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Chen HJC, Lin WP, Chiu SD, Fan CH. Multistage Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Human Hemoglobin Glutathionylation: Correlation with Cigarette Smoking. Chem Res Toxicol 2014; 27:864-72. [DOI: 10.1021/tx5000359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hauh-Jyun Candy Chen
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Ming-Hsiung, Chia-Yi 62142, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Peng Lin
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Ming-Hsiung, Chia-Yi 62142, Taiwan
| | - Shei-Da Chiu
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Ming-Hsiung, Chia-Yi 62142, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Huang Fan
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, National Chung Cheng University, 168 University Road, Ming-Hsiung, Chia-Yi 62142, Taiwan
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Ho E, Karimi Galougahi K, Liu CC, Bhindi R, Figtree GA. Biological markers of oxidative stress: Applications to cardiovascular research and practice. Redox Biol 2013; 1:483-91. [PMID: 24251116 PMCID: PMC3830063 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2013.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 694] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a common mediator in pathogenicity of established cardiovascular risk factors. Furthermore, it likely mediates effects of emerging, less well-defined variables that contribute to residual risk not explained by traditional factors. Functional oxidative modifications of cellular proteins, both reversible and irreversible, are a causal step in cellular dysfunction. Identifying markers of oxidative stress has been the focus of many researchers as they have the potential to act as an “integrator” of a multitude of processes that drive cardiovascular pathobiology. One of the major challenges is the accurate quantification of reactive oxygen species with very short half-life. Redox-sensitive proteins with important cellular functions are confined to signalling microdomains in cardiovascular cells and are not readily available for quantification. A popular approach is the measurement of stable by-products modified under conditions of oxidative stress that have entered the circulation. However, these may not accurately reflect redox stress at the cell/tissue level. Many of these modifications are “functionally silent”. Functional significance of the oxidative modifications enhances their validity as a proposed biological marker of cardiovascular disease, and is the strength of the redox cysteine modifications such as glutathionylation. We review selected biomarkers of oxidative stress that show promise in cardiovascular medicine, as well as new methodologies for high-throughput measurement in research and clinical settings. Although associated with disease severity, further studies are required to examine the utility of the most promising oxidative biomarkers to predict prognosis or response to treatment. Oxidative stress is a common mediator in pathobiology of risk factors for CVD. Oxidative modifications of proteins and lipids alter cellular function. Some oxidative biomarkers have been associated with severity of CVD. Pathophysiologically relevant biomarkers may integrate the effect of risk factors. Utility of oxidative biomarkers to guide prognosis/treatment merits further work.
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Key Words
- Biomarker
- CVD, cardiovascular disease
- Cardiovascular disease
- GSH, glutathione (reduced)
- Glutathionylation
- H2O2, hydrogen peroxide
- HO2•, hydroperoxyl radical
- HOCl, hypochlorous acid
- IsoP, isoprostane
- MDA, malondialdehyde
- MPO, myeloperoxidase
- NO2, nitrogen dioxide
- O2•−, superoxide
- ONOO−, peroxynitrite
- OxLDL, Oxidized low-density lipoprotein
- Oxidative stress
- Prognosis
- ROS, reactive oxygen species
- TBARS, thiobarbituric acid reacting substance
- •OH, hydroxyl radical
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Ho
- North Shore Heart Research Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Keyvan Karimi Galougahi
- North Shore Heart Research Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Cardiology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Chia-Chi Liu
- North Shore Heart Research Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Ravi Bhindi
- North Shore Heart Research Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Cardiology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Gemma A. Figtree
- North Shore Heart Research Group, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Cardiology, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney, Australia
- Correspondence to: North Shore Heart Research Group, Level 12, Kolling Building, Royal North Shore Hospital, St Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia. Tel.: +61 2 9926 4915; fax: +61 2 9926 6521.
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Grek CL, Zhang J, Manevich Y, Townsend DM, Tew KD. Causes and consequences of cysteine S-glutathionylation. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:26497-504. [PMID: 23861399 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r113.461368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 233] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-translational S-glutathionylation occurs through the reversible addition of a proximal donor of glutathione to thiolate anions of cysteines in target proteins, where the modification alters molecular mass, charge, and structure/function and/or prevents degradation from sulfhydryl overoxidation or proteolysis. Catalysis of both the forward (glutathione S-transferase P) and reverse (glutaredoxin) reactions creates a functional cycle that can also regulate certain protein functional clusters, including those involved in redox-dependent cell signaling events. For translational application, S-glutathionylated serum proteins may be useful as biomarkers in individuals (who may also have polymorphic expression of glutathione S-transferase P) exposed to agents that cause oxidative or nitrosative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina L Grek
- From the Departments of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics and
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Khazim K, Giustarini D, Rossi R, Verkaik D, Cornell JE, Cunningham SED, Mohammad M, Trochta K, Lorenzo C, Folli F, Bansal S, Fanti P. Glutathione redox potential is low and glutathionylated and cysteinylated hemoglobin levels are elevated in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Transl Res 2013; 162:16-25. [PMID: 23333585 PMCID: PMC3683567 DOI: 10.1016/j.trsl.2012.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH), the most abundant intracellular low molecular mass thiol, protects cells from oxidative damage and regulates their function. Available information is inconsistent regarding levels of GSH and its disulfide (GSSG) in maintenance hemodialysis patients (HD). In addition, very limited data are available in HD about the relationship of GSH and GSSG with other measures of thiol metabolism and with the clinical profile. We tested the hypothesis that erythrocyte GSH/GSSG redox potential (Eh) is lower in HD than in healthy controls (C), and that Eh correlates with posttranslational thiolation of hemoglobin (Hb) and with standard clinical parameters in HD. In cross-sectional comparison of 33 stable HD and 21 C, we found a net loss of reducing capacity in HD as indicated by low erythrocyte GSH/GSSG Eh (-257 ± 5.5 vs -270 ± 5.6 mV, P = 0.002). Glutathionylated Hb (HbSSG) was 46% higher in HD than C (19.3 ± 4.80 vs 13.2 ± 2.79 pmol/mg Hb; P = 0.001) and cysteinylated Hb (HbSSCy) was >3-fold higher in HD than C [38.3 (29.0-63.3) vs 11.5 (9.6-17.2) pmol/mg Hb; P = 0.001]. In multiple regression analysis of the HD cases, statistically significant associations were found between the GSH/GSSG Eh and the blood urea nitrogen (P = 0.001), creatinine (P = 0.015) and normalized protein catabolic rate (P = 0.05), after adjusting for age, race/ethnicity, and etiology of end-stage renal disease. In conclusion, accurate and precise analysis of GSH, GSSG, and mixed disulfides reveals loss of erythrocyte GSH/GSSG Eh, rise of both HbSSG and HbSSCy, and correlation of these thiols with measures of uremia and dietary protein intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled Khazim
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78229, USA
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Vitturi DA, Sun CW, Harper VM, Thrash-Williams B, Cantu-Medellin N, Chacko BK, Peng N, Dai Y, Michael Wyss J, Townes T, Patel RP. Antioxidant functions for the hemoglobin β93 cysteine residue in erythrocytes and in the vascular compartment in vivo. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 55:119-29. [PMID: 23159546 PMCID: PMC3821075 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Revised: 09/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The β93 cysteine (β93Cys) residue of hemoglobin is conserved in vertebrates but its function in the red blood cell (RBC) remains unclear. Because this residue is present at concentrations more than 2 orders of magnitude higher than enzymatic components of the RBC antioxidant network, a role in the scavenging of reactive species was hypothesized. Initial studies utilizing mice that express human hemoglobin with either Cys (B93C) or Ala (B93A) at the β93 position demonstrated that loss of the β93Cys did not affect activities nor expression of established components of the RBC antioxidant network (catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxiredoxin-2, glutathione peroxidase, GSH:GSSG ratios). Interestingly, exogenous addition to RBCs of reactive species that are involved in vascular inflammation demonstrated a role for the β93Cys in hydrogen peroxide and chloramine consumption. To simulate oxidative stress and inflammation in vivo, mice were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Notably, LPS induced a greater degree of hypotension and lung injury in B93A versus B93C mice, which was associated with greater formation of RBC reactive species and accumulation of DMPO-reactive epitopes in the lung. These data suggest that the β93Cys is an important effector within the RBC antioxidant network, contributing to the modulation of tissue injury during vascular inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chiao-Wang Sun
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | | | | | | | - Balu K. Chacko
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Ning Peng
- Department of Pediatrics and Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Yanying Dai
- Department of Pediatrics and Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - J. Michael Wyss
- Department of Pediatrics and Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Tim Townes
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Rakesh P. Patel
- Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
- Center for Free Radical Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham
- Corresponding Author: Rakesh P Patel, PhD, Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 901 19 street south, BMR-2, room 532, Birmingham, AL 35294, , Tel: 205 975 9225
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14
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Dulce RA, Schulman IH, Hare JM. S-glutathionylation: a redox-sensitive switch participating in nitroso-redox balance. Circ Res 2011; 108:531-3. [PMID: 21372289 DOI: 10.1161/res.0b013e3182147d74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Raul A Dulce
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, Miami, FL 33101, USA
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15
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Abstract
S-glutathionyl hemoglobin is a proposed biomarker of oxidative stress but has not been measured in sickle cell disease patients. Unlike the S-glutathionyl adduct of normal adult hemoglobin, S-glutathionyl sickle hemoglobin (HbSSG) cannot be directly measured by capillary isoelectric focusing, because it coelutes with fetal hemoglobin (HbF). This suggests that HbF, measured in sickle cell patients with or without hydroxyurea therapy, might contain endogenous HbSSG. As S-glutathionyl hemoglobin can form during sample storage, HbSSG could falsely elevate HbF levels in stored samples. We measured HbSSG based on the quantitative difference in the heterogeneous HbF/HbSSG peak before and after hemolysates were treated with dithiothreitol. Paired t tests showed that dithiothreitol reduced HbF/HbSSG in blood from pediatric sickle cell patients (n=25, mean decrease+/-SD=1.0%+/-0.6, P<0.05) but not in normal infants (n=25). Higher HbF levels in hydroxyurea-treated patients (n=5) were not attributable to HbSSG. HbSSG increased significantly within 1 day in samples stored at -20 degrees C but was unchanged in samples stored 60 days at-70 degrees C. We conclude that blood from sickle cell patients contained up to 2.2% HbSSG, and that endogenous HbSSG is a minor interferent in the measurement of HbF in fresh blood but a major interferent in improperly stored samples.
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16
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Reischl E, Dafre AL, Franco JL, Wilhelm Filho D. Distribution, adaptation and physiological meaning of thiols from vertebrate hemoglobins. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2007; 146:22-53. [PMID: 17368111 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2006.07.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2005] [Revised: 06/16/2006] [Accepted: 07/20/2006] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
In the present review, the sequences of hemoglobins (Hb) of 267 adult vertebrate species belonging to eight major vertebrate taxa are examined for the presence and location of cysteinyl residues in an attempt at correlation with their ecophysiology. Essentially, all vertebrates have surface cysteinyl residues in Hb molecules whereby their thiol groups may become highly reactive. Thiol-rich Hbs may display eight or more thiols per tetramer. In vertebrates so far examined, the cysteinyl residues occur in 44 different sequence positions in alpha chains and 41 positions in beta chains. Most of them are conservatively located and occur in only a few positions in Teleostei, Aves and Mammalia, whereas they are dispersed in Amphibia. The internal cysteinyl residue alpha104 is ubiquitous in vertebrates. Residue beta93 is highly conserved in reptiles, birds and mammals. The number of cysteine residues per tetramer with solvent access varies in vertebrates, mammalians and bony fish having the lowest number of external residues, whereas nearly all external cysteine residues in Aves and Lepidosauria are of the surface crevice type. In cartilaginous fish, amphibians, Crocodylidae and fresh water turtles, a substantial portion of the solvent accessible thiols are of the totally external type. Recent evidence shows that some Hb thiol groups are highly reactive and undergo extensive and reversible S-thiolation, and that they may be implicated in interorgan redox equilibrium processes. Participation of thiol groups in nitric oxide ((*)NO) metabolism has also been proved. The evidence argues for a new physiologically relevant role for Hb via involvement in free radical and antioxidant metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evaldo Reischl
- Departamento de Biofísica and Curso de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Fisiologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
| | - Alcir Luiz Dafre
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 8804-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
| | - Jeferson Luis Franco
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 8804-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Danilo Wilhelm Filho
- Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
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17
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Salvador A, Savageau MA. Evolution of enzymes in a series is driven by dissimilar functional demands. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:2226-31. [PMID: 16461898 PMCID: PMC1413729 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0510776103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
That distinct enzyme activities in an unbranched metabolic pathway are evolutionarily tuned to a single functional requirement is a pervasive assumption. Here we test this assumption by examining the activities of two consecutively acting enzymes in human erythrocytes with an approach to quantitative evolutionary design that avoids the above-mentioned assumption. We previously found that avoidance of NADPH depletion during the pulses of oxidative load to which erythrocytes are normally exposed is the main functional requirement mediating selection for high glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity. In the present study, we find that, in contrast, the maintenance of oxidized glutathione at low concentrations is the main functional requirement mediating selection for high glutathione reductase activity. The results in this case show that, contrary to the assumption of a single functional requirement, natural selection for the normal activities of the distinct enzymes in the pathway is mediated by different requirements. On the other hand, the results agree with the more general principles that underlie our approach. Namely, that (i) the values of biochemical parameters evolve so as to fulfill the various performance requirements that are relevant to achieve high fitness, and (ii) these performance requirements can be inferred from quantitative systems theory considerations, informed by knowledge of specific aspects of the biochemistry, physiology, genetics, and ecology of the organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armindo Salvador
- *Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, 5641 Medical Science II, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0620; and
- Chemistry Department, University of Coimbra, Largo Dom Dinis, 3004-535 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Michael A. Savageau
- *Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, 5641 Medical Science II, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-0620; and
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18
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Giustarini D, Rossi R, Milzani A, Colombo R, Dalle-Donne I. S-glutathionylation: from redox regulation of protein functions to human diseases. J Cell Mol Med 2005; 8:201-12. [PMID: 15256068 PMCID: PMC6740303 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2004.tb00275.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 224] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) play an integral role in the modulation of several physiological functions but can also be potentially destructive if produced in excessive amounts. Protein cysteinyl thiols appear especially sensitive to ROS/RNS attack. Experimental evidence started to accumulate recently, documenting that S-glutathionylation occurs in a number of physiologically relevant situations, where it can produce discrete modulatory effects on protein function. The increasing evidence of functional changes resulting from this modification, and the growing number of proteins shown to be S-glutathionylated both in vitro and in vivo support this contention, and confirm this as an attractive area of research. S-glutathionylated proteins are now actively investigated with reference to problems of biological interest and as possible biomarkers of human diseases associated with oxidative/nitrosative stress.
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Biroccio A, Urbani A, Massoud R, di Ilio C, Sacchetta P, Bernardini S, Cortese C, Federici G. A quantitative method for the analysis of glycated and glutathionylated hemoglobin by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry. Anal Biochem 2005; 336:279-88. [PMID: 15620893 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2004.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2004] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The quantization of glycated isoforms of hemoglobin has been increasingly used in clinical practice in recent years. Glycated hemoglobin is currently considered the most important measurement for long-term control of the glycemic state and it has become a reference tool for the management of diabetes. Glutathionylated hemoglobin is an increasingly clinically relevant covalent adduct of glutathione with beta chain of the globin and its concentration has been correlated with oxidative stress. We have developed an innovative technique based on linear mode matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry for quantitative analysis of hemoglobin species. This method was applied to the quantification of glycated and glutathionylated hemoglobin. A rigorous comparison was pursued to evaluate the analytical performances in quantifying glycated hemoglobin in comparison to an established high-performance liquid chromatography method. Our results indicated a complete equivalence between the two methods. The same analysis enabled the quantitative determination of the glutathionylated hemoglobin fraction. This isoform was investigated in an adult Italian population (184 individuals, 101 males and 83 females), indicating a bimodal distribution of this species. In fact 65.22% of screened individuals had glutathionylated hemoglobin levels lower than 0.50% while 34.78% had glutathionylated hemoglobin levels higher than 0.50%. A semiautomatic robotic procedure was developed for fast analysis of a large number of samples. This is the first report of a quantitative application of linear MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for the determination of glutathionylated hemoglobin in blood samples. This method allows fast screening of this hemoglobin isoform, therefore opening the route to explore its specificity and sensitivity as a molecular biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Biroccio
- Clinical Biochemistry Laboratory, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù-IRCCS, Rome (Vatican State), Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, Rome 00165, Italy
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20
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Dalle-Donne I, Scaloni A, Giustarini D, Cavarra E, Tell G, Lungarella G, Colombo R, Rossi R, Milzani A. Proteins as biomarkers of oxidative/nitrosative stress in diseases: the contribution of redox proteomics. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2005; 24:55-99. [PMID: 15389864 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 306] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) contribute to the pathogenesis and/or progression of several human diseases. Proteins are important molecular signposts of oxidative/nitrosative damage. However, it is generally unresolved whether the presence of oxidatively/nitrosatively modified proteins has a causal role or simply reflects secondary epiphenomena. Only direct identification and characterization of the modified protein(s) in a given pathophysiological condition can decipher the potential roles played by ROS/RNS-induced protein modifications. During the last few years, mass spectrometry (MS)-based technologies have contributed in a significant way to foster a better understanding of disease processes. The study of oxidative/nitrosative modifications, investigated by redox proteomics, is contributing to establish a relationship between pathological hallmarks of disease and protein structural and functional abnormalities. MS-based technologies promise a contribution in a new era of molecular medicine, especially in the discovery of diagnostic biomarkers of oxidative/nitrosative stress, enabling early detection of diseases. Indeed, identification and characterization of oxidatively/nitrosatively modified proteins in human diseases has just begun.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Dalle-Donne
- Department of Biology, University of Milan, via Celoria 26, I-20133, Milan, Italy.
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21
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Giustarini D, Dalle-Donne I, Colombo R, Petralia S, Giampaoletti S, Milzani A, Rossi R. Protein glutathionylation in erythrocytes. Clin Chem 2003; 49:327-30. [PMID: 12560364 DOI: 10.1373/49.2.327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Giustarini
- Department of Neuroscience, Pharmacology Section, University of Siena, Via A. Moro 4, 53100 Siena, Italy
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