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Burcáková L, Königová A, Kuzmina TA, Austin CJ, Matthews JB, Lightbody KL, Peczak NA, Syrota Y, Várady M. Equine tapeworm (Anoplocephala spp.) infection: evaluation of saliva- and serum-based antibody detection methods and risk factor analysis in Slovak horse populations. Parasitol Res 2023; 122:3037-3052. [PMID: 37803152 PMCID: PMC10667452 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07994-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
A lack of accurate information on the prevalence and distribution of Anoplocephala spp. infections on horse farms has led to insufficient attention to tapeworm control and increasing horse anoplocephaloses in Europe. Our study aimed to examine the occurrence of Anoplocephala spp. infection using coprological, serum- and saliva-based antibody detection methods and to analyze the risk factors associated with tapeworm infection in domestic horses in Slovakia. Fecal, serum, and saliva samples were collected from 427 horses from 31 farms in Slovakia. Additionally, a questionnaire study was conducted to collect information on tapeworm distribution on horse farms and analyze risk factors associated with infection. Fecal samples were examined by the mini-FLOTAC and the double centrifugation/combined sedimentation-flotation techniques. Serum and saliva samples were analyzed by ELISA to determine antibody levels against Anoplocephala spp. The effects of variables associated with an individual horse were tested for the positive result of the saliva ELISA test on Anoplocephala spp. Cestode eggs were detected in 1.99% of fecal samples (farm prevalence 12.90%), with no differences between the two coprological methods. Serum-based tapeworm ELISA results revealed that 39.39% of horses tested positive (farm prevalence 83.87%); while saliva-based tapeworm ELISA results revealed 56.95% positive horses (farm prevalence 96.77%). Binary logistic regression analysis revealed four meaningful predictors that significantly impacted the likelihood of detecting tapeworm infection in horses: horse age, pasture size, anthelmintic treatment scheme, and access to pasture. The influences of other variables associated with an individual horse were not significantly associated with detecting tapeworm infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludmila Burcáková
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, Kosice, 04001, Slovakia
- University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Kosice, Komenskeho 73, Kosice, 04181, Slovakia
| | - Alzbeta Königová
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, Kosice, 04001, Slovakia
| | - Tetiana A Kuzmina
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, Kosice, 04001, Slovakia.
- I. I. Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology NAS of Ukraine, Bogdan Khmelnytsky Street, 15, Kyiv, 01054, Ukraine.
| | - Corrine J Austin
- Austin Davis Biologics Ltd, Unit 1 Denfield Lodge, Lower Street, Great Addington, Northants, NN14 4BL, UK
| | - Jacqueline B Matthews
- Austin Davis Biologics Ltd, Unit 1 Denfield Lodge, Lower Street, Great Addington, Northants, NN14 4BL, UK
| | - Kirsty L Lightbody
- Austin Davis Biologics Ltd, Unit 1 Denfield Lodge, Lower Street, Great Addington, Northants, NN14 4BL, UK
| | - Natalia A Peczak
- Austin Davis Biologics Ltd, Unit 1 Denfield Lodge, Lower Street, Great Addington, Northants, NN14 4BL, UK
| | - Yaroslav Syrota
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, Kosice, 04001, Slovakia
- I. I. Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology NAS of Ukraine, Bogdan Khmelnytsky Street, 15, Kyiv, 01054, Ukraine
- African Amphibian Conservation Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Marian Várady
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, Kosice, 04001, Slovakia
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Mijatović B, Pavlović I, Živković S, Trailović I, Ćirić J, Trailović D. Prevalence of Endoparasites in the Balkan Donkey (Equus asinus) from Serbia. COMP PARASITOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1654/copa-d-22-00005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Mijatović
- Agricultural School PK “Beograd,” Pančevački put 39, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: ; )
| | - Ivan Pavlović
- Scientific Veterinary Institute of Serbia, Vojvode Toze 14, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: )
| | - Slavica Živković
- Agricultural School PK “Beograd,” Pančevački put 39, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: ; )
| | - Ivana Trailović
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Oslobođenja 18, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: , )
| | - Jelena Ćirić
- Institute of Meat Hygiene and Technology, Kaćanskog 13, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: )
| | - Dragiša Trailović
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Bulevar Oslobođenja 18, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia (e-mail: , )
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Li S, Wang D, Gong J, Zhang Y. Individual and Combined Application of Nematophagous Fungi as Biological Control Agents against Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Domestic Animals. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11020172. [PMID: 35215117 PMCID: PMC8879429 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) are a group of parasites that threaten livestock yields, and the consequent economic losses have led to major concern in the agricultural industry worldwide. The high frequency of anthelmintic resistance amongst GINs has prompted the search for sustainable alternatives. Recently, a substantial number of both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that biological controls based on predatory fungi and ovicidal fungi are the most promising alternatives to chemical controls. In this respect, the morphological characteristics of the most representative species of these two large groups of fungi, their nematicidal activity and mechanisms of action against GINs, have been increasingly studied. Given the limitation of the independent use of a single nematophagous fungus (NF), combined applications which combine multiple fungi, or fungi and chemical controls, have become increasingly popular, although these new strategies still have antagonistic effects on the candidates. In this review, we summarize both the advantages and disadvantages of the individual fungi and the combined applications identified to date to minimize recurring infections or to disrupt the life cycle of GINs. The need to discover novel and high-efficiency nematicidal isolates and the application of our understanding to the appropriate selection of associated applications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuoshuo Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China; (S.L.); (D.W.); (J.G.)
- School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Da Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China; (S.L.); (D.W.); (J.G.)
- School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Jianchuan Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China; (S.L.); (D.W.); (J.G.)
- School of Life Science, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Key Laboratory for Southwest Microbial Diversity of the Ministry of Education, Yunnan University, Kunming 650032, China; (S.L.); (D.W.); (J.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Ferraz CM, Silva LPC, de Freitas Soares FE, Souza RLO, Tobias FL, de Araújo JV, Veloso FBR, Laviola FP, Endringer DC, de Gives PM, Braga FR. Effect of silver nanoparticles (AgNP's) from Duddingtonia flagrans on cyathostomins larvae (subfamily: cyathostominae). J Invertebr Pathol 2020; 174:107395. [PMID: 32433916 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2020.107395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro effect of silver nanoparticles of the Duddingtonia flagrans filtrate enriched with chitin was evaluated on infective larvae of cyathostomins (L3). After biosynthesis, an assay was carried out with two experimental groups in microtubes, for a period of 24 h: G1 (AgNP's-D. flagrans (43.4 μg/mL) + 120 L3) and G2 (distilled water + 120 L3). At the end of this period, AgNP's-D. flagrans (G1) demonstrated an effect on L3 with a 43% reduction (p < 0.01) in relation to G2. Thus, the authors suggest new designs with AgNP's-D. flagrans for the control of cyathostomins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Magri Ferraz
- Laboratory of Experimental Parasitology and Biological Control, Universidade Vila Velha, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Fernando Luiz Tobias
- Laboratory of Experimental Parasitology and Biological Control, Universidade Vila Velha, Brazil
| | | | | | - Flavia Pessoa Laviola
- Laboratory of Experimental Parasitology and Biological Control, Universidade Vila Velha, Brazil
| | | | | | - Fábio Ribeiro Braga
- Laboratory of Experimental Parasitology and Biological Control, Universidade Vila Velha, Brazil.
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Kuzmina TA, Zvegintsova NS, Zharkikh TL. Gastrointestinal Parasite Community in a New Population of the Przewalski’s Horse (Equus Ferus Przewalskii) in the Orenburg State Reserve, Russia. VESTNIK ZOOLOGII 2017. [DOI: 10.1515/vzoo-2017-0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The Przewalski’s horse (Equus ferus przewalskii, Poljakov, 1881) is an endangered subspecies of wild horses (Equus ferus) native to steppes of Central Asia. In 2015, the Program of Establishing of a Semi-Free Population of the Przewalski’s Horse in the Orenburg Reserve was launched by FGFI “Orenburg Reserves”. The first group of 6 Przewalski’s horses (2 males and 4 females) born in the semi-reserve Le Villaret, France, was transported to the Orenburg Reserve. Th e aim of this work was to investigate the species composition of the intestinal parasite community and to monitor the dynamics of the parasite infection of the newly established Przewalski’s horse population. The level of infection by gastrointestinal parasites within the horses was examined by the McMaster method. Gastrointestinal parasites were collected in vivo after deworming of the horses with macrocyclic lactone drug “Univerm” (0.2 % aversectin C, PharmBioMed, Russia). Totally, 20 species of parasites were found: 19 species of nematodes (species of the family Strongylidae and Habronema muscae) and one species of botflies from the genus Gasterophilus. Th e widest species diversity (18 species from 8 genera) was observed in strongylids: 2 species from the subfamily Strongylinae and 16 species from Cyathostominae. Distribution of strongylid species between ten prevalence classes revealed a bimodal structure (“core-satellite” mode) of the strongylid community. Th e results obtained in this study are to be considered as the initial data for the further parasitological monitoring of Przewalski’s horses at the Orenburg State Reserve.
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Moudgil AD, Prashar A, Moudgil P, Sharma A, Sharma M. Cyathostomum catinatum infection in a mule of Palam Valley, India: a case report. J Parasit Dis 2017; 41:534-537. [PMID: 28615874 PMCID: PMC5447622 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-016-0845-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The small strongyles also called as cyathostomes, cyathostomins or trichonemes, affect the health status of equines, leading to morbidity and mortality in heavily infested individuals. The present study was carried out with the aim to identify the cause of colic in a mule of Palam valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. The detailed faecal sample examination revealed heavy intensity of strongyle eggs with an egg per gram value of 2300. The collected faecal sample also exhibited presence of adult worms. The morphological observations after clearing the retrieved parasites revealed the presence of adults of Cyathostomum catinatum species. The haematological and serum biochemical studies revealed alterations related to parasitic invasion. Fenbendazole used for the treatment proved completely effective. To the best of our knowledge and thorough literature search this is the first report of C. catinatum infestation in equines of India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aman D. Moudgil
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, H.P. 176062 India
| | - Adarsh Prashar
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, H.P. 176062 India
| | - Pallavi Moudgil
- School of Public Health and Zoonoses, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 India
| | - Ankur Sharma
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, DGCN COVAS, CSKHPKV, Palampur, H.P. 176062 India
| | - Manoj Sharma
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education, CVS, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 India
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Abstract
The number of horses in northern Spanish mountains has increased in recent decades, but little is known about their grazing behaviour, performance and potential for foal meat production. This research aimed to study the diet selection, liveweight (LW) changes and parasitic status of dry and lactating mares, and foals' LW gains, grazing on heathlands with different botanical composition. The experimental design consisted of three vegetation types: dominated by heather (Ericaceae) species (H), dominated by gorse (Ulex gallii; G) and co-dominated by gorse and heath-grasses (G-G), with four replicates per treatment (12 paddocks of 1.2 ha). The study lasted three grazing seasons (2010-12). Each year, 24 crossbred mature mares (310±52 kg LW) were used, managing one lactating mare with her foal plus one non-lactating mare per paddock from May to late summer or early autumn. In the case of H paddocks, animals had to be removed before (late August to early September) because of apparent loss of body condition. Animals were periodically weighed. Mares' diet composition was estimated using alkane markers, analysing the discrepancies in alkane concentrations between dietary plant components and faeces. Faecal samples were also analysed for gastrointestinal nematodes ova. Chemical composition of the main plant components (i.e. heather, gorse and grasses) revealed a low nutritive value, averaging 79, 115 and 113 g CP/kg dry matter (DM), respectively, that could restrict livestock performance. Mares initially selected gorse and grasses (0.47 and 0.40, respectively, in 2010), increasing heather consumption over time (from 0.13 in 2010 to 0.29 in 2012) as gorse availability decreased. The performance of both mares and foals was lower in H compared with G and G-G paddocks (-216 v. 347 g/day for mares, P<0.01; 278 v. 576 g/day for foals, P<0.05), whereas LW changes were more favourable in dry mares than in lactating ones (241 v. 78 g/day; P<0.05). Small strongyle (Cyathostominae) egg counts in mares' faeces increased across the grazing season with no differences between treatments. These results indicate that grazing by horses on gorse- and grass-gorse-dominated shrublands could be sustainable at least during part of the year (4 to 6 months). However, heather-dominated heathlands are not able to meet the nutritional needs of horses even for a short time (2 to 4 months). Nevertheless, the low nutritive quality of these vegetation communities, especially in autumn, requires animal access to other pastures with a higher nutritive value, or supplementary feeding, to enhance foals' growth and maintain sustainable grazing systems with productive herds.
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The route of administration drastically affects ivermectin activity against small strongyles in horses. Vet Parasitol 2017; 236:62-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2016] [Revised: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Kuzmina TA, Dzeverin I, Kharchenko VA. Strongylids in domestic horses: Influence of horse age, breed and deworming programs on the strongyle parasite community. Vet Parasitol 2016; 227:56-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Morariu S, Mederle N, Badea C, Dărăbuş G, Ferrari N, Genchi C. The prevalence, abundance and distribution of cyathostomins (small stongyles) in horses from Western Romania. Vet Parasitol 2016; 223:205-9. [PMID: 27198801 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Forty seven working horses from Romania were post-mortem examined for small strongyles (Cyathostominae) infections. All horses were found infected. The overall cyathostomins intensity ranged from 390 to 13,010 and horses were infected by 8-24 species. The intensity was higher in ventral colon (1531) and dorsal colon (824), the lowest in the caecum (524). Twenty four species were identified. Cyathostomum catinatum, Cylicocyclus insigne, and C. Nassatus had 100% of prevalence. Over 50% of horses were infected by Coronocyclus coronatus, Cylicostephanus calicatus, C. goldi, and C. longibursatus. Other prevalent species (34%-45%) were Cyathostomum tetracanthum, Cylicostephanus minutus and Gyalocephalus capitatus. Coronocyclus labiatus, Parapoteriostomum mettami, Poteriostomum imparidentatum and P. ratzii had the lowest prevalence. Most species showed high organ preference with a niche breadth value between 1 and 1.96 while only 7 species (Coronocyclus labiatus, Cyathostomum tetracanthum, C. brevicapsulatus, Cylicocyclus elongatus, C. insigne, C. leptostomum and C. radiatus) showed a more generalist selection. The niche breadth of 10 species was significantly (p<0.05) influenced by itself intensity (Coronocyclus labratus, Cyathostomum pateratum, C. tetracanthum, Cylicocyclus elongatus, C. radiatus, C. ultrajectinus, C. leptostomum, Cylicodontophorus euproctus, Poteriostomum imparidentatum, P. ratzii). The niche breadth of Cylicocyclus nassatus was positively (p<0.05) influenced by the summed intensity of the other species while that of Cylicocyclus elongatus was negatively (p<0.05) influenced by the intensity of the other species. The cluster analysis of the Cyathostominae community composition showed a major cluster composed by the three dominant species, followed by a cluster composed by Coronocyclus coronatus, while all the other species presented a tree like structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sorin Morariu
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timişoara, Romania
| | - Narcisa Mederle
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timişoara, Romania.
| | - Corina Badea
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timişoara, Romania
| | - Gheorghe Dărăbuş
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Banat's University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine "King Michael I of Romania" from Timişoara, Romania
| | - Nicola Ferrari
- Departement of Veterinary Science and Public Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
| | - Claudio Genchi
- Departement of Veterinary Science and Public Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy
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The anthelmintic efficacy of natural plant cysteine proteinases against the equine tapeworm, Anoplocephala perfoliata in vitro. J Helminthol 2015; 90:561-8. [PMID: 26343287 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x15000759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Papaya latex has been demonstrated to be an efficacious anthelmintic against murine, porcine, ovine and canine nematode parasites, and even those infecting poultry, and it has some efficacy against rodent cestodes. The active ingredients of papaya latex are known to be cysteine proteinases (CPs). The experiments described in this paper indicate that CPs in papaya latex, and also those in pineapples, are highly efficacious against the equine cestode Anoplocephala perfoliata in vitro, by causing a significant reduction in motility leading to death of the worms. The susceptibility of A. perfoliata to damage by CPs was considerably greater than that of the rodent cestodes Hymenolepis diminuta and H. microstoma. Our results are the first to report anthelmintic efficacy of CPs against an economically important equine helminth. Moreover, they provide further evidence that the spectrum of activity of CPs is not restricted to nematodes and support the idea that these plant-derived enzymes can be developed into useful broad-spectrum anthelmintics.
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Sokół R, Raś-Noryńska M, Michalczyk M, Jasiecka A, Ziółkowski H, Jaroszewski J. A comparison of the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of ivermectin after spring and autumn treatments against Cyathostominae in horses. Pol J Vet Sci 2015; 18:371-7. [DOI: 10.1515/pjvs-2015-0048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the efficacy of ivermectin against Cyathostominae infections and to describe the drug’s pharmacokinetic parameters during two seasonal deworming treatments in horses. The study was performed on warm-blooded mares aged 3-12 years weighing 450-550 kg. A single bolus of an oral paste formulation of ivermectin was administered at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg BW in spring and autumn. Fecal samples were tested before treatment and 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75 days after treatment. Ivermectin concentrations in blood samples collected before treatment, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 hours after treatment, and 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60 and 75 days after drug administration were determined by high pressure liquid chromatography. Drug absorption was significantly (p<0.05) slower (tmax: 21.89±11.43 h) in autumn than in spring (tmax: 9.78±8.97 h). Maximum concentrations (Cmax) of ivermectin in the blood plasma of individual horses (8.40-43.08 ng/ml) were observed 2-24 h after drug administration during the spring treatment and 2-36 h (6.43-24.86 ng/ml) after administration during the autumn treatment. Significantly higher (p<0.05) ivermectin concentrations were found during the first 4 hours after administration in spring in comparison with those determined after the autumn treatment.
The administration of the recommended dose of ivermectin resulted in 100% elimination of parasitic eggs from feces in spring and autumn treatment.
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Kornaś S, Sallé G, Skalska M, David I, Ricard A, Cabaret J. Estimation of genetic parameters for resistance to gastro-intestinal nematodes in pure blood Arabian horses. Int J Parasitol 2015; 45:237-42. [PMID: 25592965 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2014.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Equine internal parasites, mostly cyathostomins, affect both horse welfare and performance. The appearance of anthelmintic-resistant parasites creates a pressing need for optimising drenching schemes. This optimization may be achieved by identifying genetic markers associated with host susceptibility to infection and then to drench carriers of these markers. The aim of our study was to characterise the genetics of horse resistance to strongyle infection by estimating heritability of this trait in an Arabian pure blood population. A population of 789 Arabian pure blood horses from the Michałów stud farm, Poland were measured for strongyle egg excretion twice a year, over 8 years. Low repeatability values were found for faecal egg counts. Our analyses showed that less than 10% of the observed variation for strongyle faecal egg counts in this population had a genetic origin. However, additional analyses highlighted an age-dependent increase in heritability which was 0.04 (±0.02) in young horses (up to 3 years of age) but 0.21 (±0.04) in older ones. These results suggest that a significant part of the inter-individual variation has a genetic origin. This paves the way to a genomic dissection of horse-nematode interactions which might provide predictive markers of susceptibility, allowing individualised drenching schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sławomir Kornaś
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, University of Agriculture of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
| | - Guillaume Sallé
- INRA, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37000 Tours, France.
| | - Marta Skalska
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, University of Agriculture of Krakow, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
| | - Ingrid David
- INRA, UMR1388 Génétique, Physiologie et Systèmes d'élevage, F-31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | - Anne Ricard
- INRA, UMR1313 Génétique Animale et Biologie Intégrative, F-78352 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Jacques Cabaret
- INRA, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37380 Nouzilly, France; Université François Rabelais de Tours, UMR1282 Infectiologie et Santé Publique, F-37000 Tours, France
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Treatment of cyathostominosis with ivermectin and its influence on selected blood biochemical parameters. Pol J Vet Sci 2013; 16:483-6. [PMID: 24195282 DOI: 10.2478/pjvs-2013-0067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Infections caused by nematodes of the subfamily Cyathostominae affect nearly 100% of pastured horses. Despite of an absence of pronounced symptoms, cyathostominosis can have very serious health consequences. The aim of this study was to monitor changes in total protein levels and concentrations of selected microelements and macroelements in the blood of horses before and after ivermectin treatment. In healthy horses infected by the studied parasites, total blood protein levels were below the physiological norm, but iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) concentrations were within normal limits. Ivermectin treatment reduced the number of excreted parasite eggs (FEC) by 100%, and dead parasites were observed in feces. Decreased iron (Fe) concentrations and an insignificant increase in total blood protein levels were reported. A progressive decline in iron levels was observed when parasite eggs reappeared in feces 60 days after treatment. Iron loss takes place as a result of bleeding from the large intestine when adult nematodes affected by the drug are removed from intestine and fourth-stage larvae leave parasitic nodules in the intestinal wall. A drop in iron levels could be an indirect indicator of the severity of cyathostominosis.
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Thomas SM, Morgan ER. Effect on performance of weanling alpacas following treatments against gastro-intestinal parasites. Vet Parasitol 2013; 198:244-9. [PMID: 24021542 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 08/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Nematodes and coccidia are common parasites of alpacas (Vicugna pacos), and important causes of disease in this increasingly popular livestock species. Endoparasitic infestation is thought to increase at times of natural or imposed stress, and antiparasitic treatments are often administered, although to date there is little evidence regarding their effect. Thirty-one alpaca juvenilles (cria) were divided into four groups at weaning, and received either no treatment as a control (C), fenbendazole anthelmintic (FB), toltrazuril coccidiostat (T), or both treatments (FBT). Body weights and faecal egg/oocyst counts were recorded weekly for six weeks following treatment. Although the prophylactic treatments decreased faecal egg/oocyst counts of the target organisms in the short term, there was no significant difference in egg/oocyst output over the course of the trial from animals given wormer, coccidiostat or both treatments. The group receiving anthelmintic only showed a significant reduction in live weight gain (LWG), with no significant difference in LWG between the other groups. At the conclusion of the trial, 'wormed only' alpacas weighed 3.3% less than at weaning, losing an average 1.3 kg over six weeks, whereas average LWG in the control group was 2.5 kg. Antiparasitics transiently reduced egg/oocyst output but results suggest that further investigation is required on the action of anthelmintics administered to alpaca cria at weaning and their effect on animal health and welfare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan M Thomas
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UG, United Kingdom; Pathology & Pathogen Biology (PPB) Hawkshead, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield, Hertfordshire AL9 7TA, United Kingdom.
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16
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Canever RJ, Braga PR, Boeckh A, Grycajuck M, Bier D, Molento MB. Lack of Cyathostomin sp. reduction after anthelmintic treatment in horses in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2013; 194:35-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2011] [Revised: 12/10/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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17
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Flanagan KL, Morton JM, Sandeman RM. Prevalence of infestation with gastrointestinal nematodes in Pony Club horses in Victoria. Aust Vet J 2013; 91:241-5. [DOI: 10.1111/avj.12052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- KL Flanagan
- Parasitology Laboratory; La Trobe University; Bundoora; Victoria; Australia
| | - JM Morton
- The University of Queensland; School of Veterinary Science; Queensland; Australia
| | - RM Sandeman
- Monash University Gippsland; School of Applied Sciences and Engineering; Churchill; Victoria; Australia
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Equine cestodosis: a sero-epidemiological study of Anoplocephala perfoliata infection in Ethiopia. Vet Res Commun 2012; 36:93-8. [PMID: 22294318 DOI: 10.1007/s11259-012-9516-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
A 12/13 kDa antigen, tapeworm ELISA test, developed for use in horses, was used to detect parasite-specific serum antibody, IgG(T), in the serum of donkeys. In a pilot study the 12/13 kDa antigen was tested and proved to detect the antibody, IgG(T), in donkey sera. Blood samples from 797 donkeys, naturally exposed to cestode infection, from four geographical localities were collected and sera were prepared and analysed. There was substantial serological evidence that donkeys were potentially infected with A. perfoliata. A range of ELISA OD values were obtained from the serological assay. Over 26% and 7.5% of the donkeys were moderately and highly infected, respectively, showing at least a 34% sero-prevalence. The rest, 66.1%, were either with low infection intensity or negative for A. perfoliata infection. The risk of infections, both in sero-prevalence and intensity, as determined by ELISA optical density (OD), were highest in the highland areas of Ethiopia where pastures are low-lying and wet, and permanent pasture management is regularly practised. Sex, age and body condition of the donkeys had no significant effect either on prevalence of the infection or on the serum antibody level. These results indicate a risk of intestinal disorders, particularly, colic, associated with A. perfoliata infection in donkeys.
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Abstract
Horses worldwide are exposed to a complex mixture of intestinal parasitic helminths. When burdens are high, these parasites can seriously compromise health and welfare. Some helminth species have an extremely high prevalence and are difficult to control, not least because there is a limited understanding of their most basic biology. Furthermore, levels of resistance to some of the commonly used anthelmintics are widespread and increasing. The cyathostomins are the most common nematode species affecting equids worldwide. Within this group of parasites are more than 50 different species. Until recent research activities, little was known about the contribution that individual species make to clinical disease, parasite epidemiology and anthelmintic resistance. This review describes some of the recent research advances in the understanding of cyathostomins in these areas. As part of the research effort, molecular tools were developed to facilitate identification of the non-parasitic stages of cyathostomins. These tools have proved invaluable in the investigation of the relative contributions that individual species make to the pathology and epidemiology of mixed infections. At the more applied level, research has also progressed in the development of a diagnostic test that will allow numbers of cyathostomin encysted larvae to be estimated. This test utilises cyathostomin-specific serum antibody responses as markers of infection. As anthelmintic resistance will be the major constraint on parasite control in future, researchers are actively investigating mechanisms of drug resistance and how to improve the detection of resistance in the field. Recent developments in these areas are also outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Matthews
- Moredun Research Institute and Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, UK.
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Tavela ADO, Araújo JV, Braga FR, Silva AR, Carvalho RO, Araujo JM, Ferreira SR, Carvalho GR. Biological control of cyathostomin (Nematoda: Cyathostominae) with nematophagous fungus Monacrosporium thaumasium in tropical southeastern Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2011; 175:92-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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21
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Silva AR, Araújo JV, Braga FR, Alves CD, Filho JD. Destruction of Anoplocephala perfoliata Eggs by the Nematophagous Fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia. J Equine Vet Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2010.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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22
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Ovicidal action of a crude enzymatic extract of the fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia against cyathostomin eggs. Vet Parasitol 2010; 172:264-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2009] [Revised: 05/08/2010] [Accepted: 05/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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23
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In vitro predatory activity of nematophagous fungi and after passing through gastrointestinal tract of equine on infective larvae of Strongyloides westeri. Parasitol Res 2010; 107:103-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-1841-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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24
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Predatory activity of the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans on horse cyathostomin infective larvae. Trop Anim Health Prod 2010; 42:1161-5. [DOI: 10.1007/s11250-010-9542-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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25
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Viability of the nematophagous fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia after passage through the gastrointestinal tract of horses. Vet Parasitol 2010; 168:264-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Revised: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Biological control of horse cyathostomin (Nematoda: Cyathostominae) using the nematophagous fungus Duddingtonia flagrans in tropical southeastern Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2009; 163:335-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2008] [Revised: 05/04/2009] [Accepted: 05/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Getachew M, Trawford A, Feseha G, Reid SWJ. Gastrointestinal parasites of working donkeys of Ethiopia. Trop Anim Health Prod 2009; 42:27-33. [PMID: 19548106 DOI: 10.1007/s11250-009-9381-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2008] [Accepted: 06/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The general prevalence and population composition of gastrointestinal and pulmonary helminths of working donkeys were studied. For the purpose 2935 working donkeys were coprologically examined for nematode and cestode, and 215 donkeys for trematode infections. Seven donkeys that died due to various health problems or were euthanased on a welfare ground were necropsied and the parasites were recovered and identified to the species level. The study was conducted during the periods 1996-1999.Coprological examination revealed 99% strongyle, 80% Fasciola, 51% Parascaris, 30% Gastrodiscus, 11% Strongyloides westeri, 8% cestodes and 2% Oxyuris equi infection prevalence. Over 55% of donkeys had more than 1000 eggs per gram of faeces (epg). Forty two different species of parasites consisting of 33 nematodes, 3 trematodes, 3 cestodes and 3 arthropod larvae were identified from postmortem examined donkeys. Among the nematodes 17 species of Cyathostominae and 7 species of Strongylinae were identified. Other parasites identified include, Habronema muscae, Draschia megastoma, Trichostrongylus axei, Strongyloides westeri, Anoplocephala perfoliata, Anoplocephala magna, Anoplocephaloides (Paranoplocephala) mamillana, Parascaris equorum, Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica, Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus, Dictyocaulus arnfieldi, Oxyuris equi, Probstmayria vivipara, Gasterophilus intestinalis, Gasterophilus nasalis, Rhinoestrus uzbekistanicus and Setaria equina. This study revealed that working donkeys in Ethiopia are infected with a range of helminths and arthropod larvae, which are representatives of the important pathogenic parasites found in equids worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Getachew
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Donkey Health and Welfare project-Donkey Sanctuary, P.O. Box 34, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia.
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Common medical problems in the older foal. Part 2: Diarrhoea. COMPANION ANIMAL 2009. [PMCID: PMC7162268 DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-3862.2009.tb00336.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kornaś S, Gawor J, Cabaret J, Molenda K, Skalska M, Nowosad B. Morphometric identification of equid cyathostome (Nematoda: Cyathostominae) infective larvae. Vet Parasitol 2009; 162:290-4. [PMID: 19359100 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2008] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of infection with cyathosthomes of horses is high worldwide. Identification of species on infective larvae based on available morphological keys is not fully accurate and the aim of the present study was to provide a reliable identification key of cyathostomes infective larvae. At the abattoir, horse large intestines were examined and the cyathostomes females extracted and identified. The eggs from uteruses of identified cyathostomes females were used for breeding the infective larvae. Morphological parameters of Cyathostominae infective larvae, i.e. the length of the larvae with sheath, length of oesophagus, intestine, end of the intestine to the end of the larvae body, and finally the body breadth measured and the cells arrangement of the intestine cells (A-D) noted. These morphological parameters of the third infective larvae were determined of the following cyathostomes species: Cylicocyclus nassatus, Cylicostephanus goldi, Cyathostomum catinatum, Cylicostephanus longibursatus, Cyathostomum pateratum, Cylicocyclus ashworti, Cylicocyclus insigne, Cylicostephanus calicatus and Coronocyclus coronatus. The qualitative assignment into A, C and D intestinal type and then the combination of morphological measures allows specific identification for most species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sławomir Kornaś
- Department of Zoology and Ecology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Krakow, Poland.
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A comparison of coprological, serological and molecular methods for the diagnosis of horse infection with Anoplocephala perfoliata (Cestoda, Cyclophyllidea). Vet Parasitol 2008; 152:271-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2007] [Revised: 12/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
Enteritis and colitis remain challenging and life-threatening diseases despite many recent advances. Successful treatment is largely dependent on early recognition and directed therapy, which is facilitated by obtaining a complete history and physical examination. A number of new therapies and methods of monitoring critically ill patients have become integral components of treatment success. The critical monitoring of equine foals and adults continues to be an exciting and emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darien J Feary
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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32
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Traversa D, Iorio R, Klei TR, Kharchenko VA, Gawor J, Otranto D, Sparagano OAE. New method for simultaneous species-specific identification of equine strongyles (nematoda, strongylida) by reverse line blot hybridization. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45:2937-42. [PMID: 17626168 PMCID: PMC2045237 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00714-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability of a reverse line blot (RLB) assay to identify 13 common species of equine small strongyles (cyathostomins) and to discriminate them from three Strongylus spp. (large strongyles) was demonstrated. The assay relied on the specific hybridization of PCR-amplified intergenic spacer DNA fragments of the nuclear ribosomal DNA to membrane-bound species-specific probes. All cyathostomins examined were unequivocally identified and simultaneously discriminated from each other and from three large strongyles (Strongylus edentatus, Strongylus equinus, and Strongylus vulgaris). This assay will enable the accurate and rapid identification of equine cyathostomins irrespective of their life cycle stage, opening important avenues for a better understanding of their biology and epidemiology and of the pathogenesis of cyathostomin-associated disease. In particular, this RLB method promises to be a powerful diagnostic tool to determine the roles of individual species in the pathogenesis of mixed infections and to elucidate some aspects of cyathostominosis. Also, it could represent a basic step toward the development of a rapid and simple molecular test for the early detection of drug-resistant genotypes of horse strongyle species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donato Traversa
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Teramo, Italy.
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Infectious and Parasitic Diseases of the Alimentary Tract. JUBB, KENNEDY & PALMER'S PATHOLOGY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 2007. [PMCID: PMC7155580 DOI: 10.1016/b978-070202823-6.50096-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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34
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Abstract
Modern molecular technologies are having a substantial impact in many fundamental and applied areas of parasitology. In particular, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-coupled approaches have found broad applicability because their sensitivity permits the enzymatic amplification of gene fragments from minute quantities of nucleic acids from tiny amounts of parasite material. Also, high-resolution electrophoretic and genomic methods are finding increased utility. This paper briefly discusses some developments and applications of DNA methods to parasites and highlights their usefulness or potential for those of veterinary importance. Selected examples of applications with implications in fundamental (systematics, population genetics, epidemiology and ecology) and applied (diagnosis, prevention and control) areas are presented. The focus is mainly on tools for the accurate identification of parasitic nematodes and protozoa of socio-economic importance, the diagnosis of infections and the detection of genetic variability using PCR-coupled mutation scanning technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin B Gasser
- Department of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Victoria 3030, Australia.
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Gasser RB, Williamson RMC, Beveridge I. Anoplocephala perfoliataof horses – significant scope for further research, improved diagnosis and control. Parasitology 2005; 131:1-13. [PMID: 16038391 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182004007127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Anoplocephala perfoliatais the commonest tapeworm parasite of horses and is incriminated as a significant cause of clinical disease (e.g., ileocaecal intussusception, caeco-caecal intussusception and/or caecal perforation), particularly in horses chronically infected with large numbers of worms. The high prevalence (~20–80%) of the parasite in some countries suggests an increased risk of clinical cases. In spite of research, there is still a paucity of information regarding the pathogenesis of the disease, the epidemiology of the parasite in different geographical regions and there are significant limitations with the diagnosis of infection. The present article provides an account of the biology, epidemiology and pathogenic effects ofA. perfoliata, the diagnosis of infection and treatment. It highlights some gaps in knowledge of the parasite and the disease it causes, and suggests opportunities for future research and prospects for improved diagnosis, prevention and control.
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Affiliation(s)
- R B Gasser
- Department of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, 250 Princes Highway, Werribee, Victoria 3030, Australia.
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