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Julia Altube M, Perez N, Lilia Romero E, José Morilla M, Higa L, Paula Perez A. Inhaled lipid nanocarriers for pulmonary delivery of glucocorticoids: previous strategies, recent advances and key factors description. Int J Pharm 2023:123146. [PMID: 37330156 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
In view of the strong anti-inflammatory activity of glucocorticoids (GC) they are used in the treatment of almost all inflammatory lung diseases. In particular, inhaled GC (IGC) allow high drug concentrations to be deposited in the lung and may reduce the incidence of adverse effects associated with systemic administration. However, rapid absorption through the highly absorbent surface of the lung epithelium may limit the success of localized therapy. Therefore, inhalation of GC incorporated into nanocarriers is a possible approach to overcome this drawback. In particular, lipid nanocarriers, which showed high pulmonary biocompatibility and are well known in the pharmaceutical industry, have the best prospects for pulmonary delivery of GC by inhalation. This review provides an overview of the pre-clinical applications of inhaled GC-lipid nanocarriers based on several key factors that will determine the efficiency of local pulmonary GC delivery: 1) stability to nebulization, 2) deposition profile in the lungs, 3) mucociliary clearance, 4) selective accumulation in target cells, 5) residence time in the lung and systemic absorption and 6) biocompatibility. Finally, novel preclinical pulmonary models for inflammatory lung diseases are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Julia Altube
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Noelia Perez
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eder Lilia Romero
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María José Morilla
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Leticia Higa
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Paula Perez
- Nanomedicines Research and Development Centre (NARD), Science and Technology Department, National University of Quilmes, Roque Sáenz Peña 352, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Beeraka NM, Zhou R, Wang X, Vikram P R H, Kumar TP, Liu J, Greeshma MV, Mandal SP, Gurupadayya BM, Fan R. Immune Repertoire and Advancements in Nanotherapeutics for the Impediment of Severe Steroid Resistant Asthma (SSR). Int J Nanomedicine 2022; 17:2121-2138. [PMID: 35592101 PMCID: PMC9112344 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s364693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Severe steroid-resistant asthma (SSR) patients do not respond to the corticosteroid therapies due to the heterogeneity, and genome-wide variations. However, there are very limited reports pertinent to the molecular signaling underlying SSR and making pharmacologists, and formulation scientists to identify the effective therapeutic targets in order to produce novel therapies using novel drug delivery systems (NDDS). We have substantially searched literature for the peer-reviewed and published reports delineating the role of glucocorticoid-altered gene expression, and the mechanisms responsible for SSR asthma, and NDDS for treating SSR asthma using public databases PubMed, National Library of Medicine (NLM), google scholar, and medline. Subsequently, we described reports underlying the SSR pathophysiology through several immunological and inflammatory phenotypes. Furthermore, various therapeutic strategies and the role of signaling pathways such as mORC1-STAT3-FGFBP1, NLRP3 inflammasomes, miR-21/PI3K/HDAC2 axis, PI3K were delineated and these can be considered as the therapeutic targets for mitigating the pathophysiology of SSR asthma. Finally, the possibility of nanomedicine-based formulation and their applications in order to enhance the long term retention of several antioxidant and anti-asthmatic drug molecules as a significant therapeutic modality against SSR asthma was described vividly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narasimha M Beeraka
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Human Anatomy, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, 119991, Russia
- Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine (CEMR), Department of Biochemistry, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSS AHER), JSS Medical college, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
| | - Runze Zhou
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- Endocrinology Department, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hemanth Vikram P R
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - Tegginamath Pramod Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutics, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysore, Karnataka, 570015, India
| | - Junqi Liu
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
| | - M V Greeshma
- Center of Excellence in Molecular Biology and Regenerative Medicine (CEMR), Department of Biochemistry, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSS AHER), JSS Medical college, Mysuru, Karnataka, India
| | - Subhankar P Mandal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research (JSSAHER), Mysuru, 570015, Karnataka, India
| | - B M Gurupadayya
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ruitai Fan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Ruitai Fan, Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, 1 Jianshedong Str., Zhengzhou, 450052, People’s Republic of China, Email
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Design, Development, Physicochemical Characterization, and In Vitro Drug Release of Formoterol PEGylated PLGA Polymeric Nanoparticles. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030638. [PMID: 35336011 PMCID: PMC8955426 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymeric nanoparticles’ drug delivery systems represent a promising platform for targeted controlled release since they are capable of improving the bioavailability and tissue localization of drugs compared to traditional means of administration. Investigation of key parameters of nanoparticle preparation and their impact on performance, such as size, drug loading, and sustained release, is critical to understanding the synthesis parameters surrounding a given nanoparticle formulation. This comprehensive and systematic study reports for the first time and focuses on the development and characterization of formoterol polymeric nanoparticles that have potential application in a variety of acute and chronic diseases. Nanoparticles were prepared by a variety of solvent emulsion methods with varying modifications to the polymer and emulsion system with the aim of increasing drug loading and tuning particle size for renal localization and drug delivery. Maximal drug loading was achieved by amine modification of polyethylene glycol (PEG) conjugated to the poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) backbone. The resulting formoterol PEGylated PLGA polymeric nanoparticles were successfully lyophilized without compromising size distribution by using either sucrose or trehalose as cryoprotectants. The physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles were examined comprehensively, including surface morphology, solid-state transitions, crystallinity, and residual water content. In vitro formoterol drug release characteristics from the PEGylated PLGA polymeric nanoparticles were also investigated as a function of both polymer and emulsion parameter selection, and release kinetics modeling was successfully applied.
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Chirgwin ME, Dedloff MR, Holban AM, Gestal MC. Novel Therapeutic Strategies Applied to Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections in Cystic Fibrosis. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12244093. [PMID: 31817881 PMCID: PMC6947192 DOI: 10.3390/ma12244093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is one of the most prevalent genetic diseases and a total of 1700 different genetic mutations can cause this condition. Patients that suffer this disease have a thickening of the mucus, creating an environment that promotes bacterial infections. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a ubiquitous bacterium, which is frequently found in the lungs of CF patients. P. aeruginosa is known for its high level of antibiotic resistance as well as its high rate of mutation that allows it to rapidly evolve and adapt to a multitude of conditions. When a CF lung is infected with P. aeruginosa, the decay of the patient is accelerated, but there is little that can be done apart from controlling the infection with antibiotics. Novel strategies to control P. aeruginosa infection are imperative, and nanotechnology provides novel approaches to drug delivery that are more efficient than classic antibiotic treatments. These drug delivery systems are offering new prospects, especially for these patients with special mucus conditions and bacterial characteristics that limit antibiotic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E. Chirgwin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY 13699, USA;
| | | | - Alina Maria Holban
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 030018 Bucharest, Romania;
- Research Institute of the University of Bucharest (ICUB), 050107 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, University Politechnica of Bucharest, 1-7 Polizu Street, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Monica C. Gestal
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
- Correspondence: or
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Man F, Gawne PJ, T M de Rosales R. Nuclear imaging of liposomal drug delivery systems: A critical review of radiolabelling methods and applications in nanomedicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 143:134-160. [PMID: 31170428 PMCID: PMC6866902 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The integration of nuclear imaging with nanomedicine is a powerful tool for efficient development and clinical translation of liposomal drug delivery systems. Furthermore, it may allow highly efficient imaging-guided personalised treatments. In this article, we critically review methods available for radiolabelling liposomes. We discuss the influence that the radiolabelling methods can have on their biodistribution and highlight the often-overlooked possibility of misinterpretation of results due to decomposition in vivo. We stress the need for knowing the biodistribution/pharmacokinetics of both the radiolabelled liposomal components and free radionuclides in order to confidently evaluate the images, as they often share excretion pathways with intact liposomes (e.g. phospholipids, metallic radionuclides) and even show significant tumour uptake by themselves (e.g. some radionuclides). Finally, we describe preclinical and clinical studies using radiolabelled liposomes and discuss their impact in supporting liposomal drug development and clinical translation in several diseases, including personalised nanomedicine approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis Man
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King's College London, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom
| | - Peter J Gawne
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King's College London, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom
| | - Rafael T M de Rosales
- School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King's College London, St Thomas' Hospital, London SE1 7EH, United Kingdom; London Centre for Nanotechnology, King's College London, Strand Campus, London WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom.
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Rudokas M, Najlah M, Alhnan MA, Elhissi A. Liposome Delivery Systems for Inhalation: A Critical Review Highlighting Formulation Issues and Anticancer Applications. Med Princ Pract 2016; 25 Suppl 2:60-72. [PMID: 26938856 PMCID: PMC5588529 DOI: 10.1159/000445116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This is a critical review on research conducted in the field of pulmonary delivery of liposomes. Issues relating to the mechanism of nebulisation and liposome composition were appraised and correlated with literature reports of liposome formulations used in clinical trials to understand the role of liposome size and composition on therapeutic outcome. A major highlight was liposome inhalation for the treatment of lung cancers. Many in vivo studies that explored the potential of liposomes as anticancer carrier systems were evaluated, including animal studies and clinical trials. Liposomes can entrap anticancer drugs and localise their action in the lung following pulmonary delivery. The safety of inhaled liposomes incorporating anticancer drugs depends on the anticancer agent used and the amount of drug delivered to the target cancer in the lung. The difficulty of efficient targeting of liposomal anticancer aerosols to the cancerous tissues within the lung may result in low doses reaching the target site. Overall, following the success of liposomes as inhalable carriers in the treatment of lung infections, it is expected that more focus from research and development will be given to designing inhalable liposome carriers for the treatment of other lung diseases, including pulmonary cancers. The successful development of anticancer liposomes for inhalation may depend on the future development of effective aerosolisation devices and better targeted liposomes to maximise the benefit of therapy and reduce the potential for local and systemic adverse effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mindaugas Rudokas
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston
| | - Mohammad Najlah
- Faculty of Medical Science, Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
| | - Mohamed Albed Alhnan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston
| | - Abdelbary Elhissi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Section, College of Pharmacy, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
- *Dr. Abdelbary Elhissi, Pharmaceutical Sciences Section, College of Pharmacy, Qatar University, PO Box 2713, Doha (Qatar), E-Mail
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Cipolla D, Shekunov B, Blanchard J, Hickey A. Lipid-based carriers for pulmonary products: preclinical development and case studies in humans. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 75:53-80. [PMID: 24819218 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A number of lipid-based technologies have been applied to pharmaceuticals to modify their drug release characteristics, and additionally, to improve the drug loading for poorly soluble drugs. These technologies, including solid-state lipid microparticles, many of which are porous in nature, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers, are increasingly being developed for inhalation applications. This article provides a review of the rationale for the use of these technologies in the pulmonary delivery of drugs, and summarizes the manufacturing processes and their limitations, the in vitro and in vivo performance of these systems, the safety of these lipid-based systems in the lung, and their promise for commercialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Cipolla
- Aradigm Corporation, 3929 Point Eden Way, Hayward, CA 94545, USA.
| | - Boris Shekunov
- Shire Corporation, 725 Chesterbrook Blvd, Wayne, PA 19087, USA
| | - Jim Blanchard
- Aradigm Corporation, 3929 Point Eden Way, Hayward, CA 94545, USA
| | - Anthony Hickey
- RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
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Abstract
No marketed inhaled products currently use sustained release formulations such as liposomes to enhance drug disposition in the lung, but that may soon change. This review focuses on the interaction between liposomal formulations and the inhalation technology used to deliver them as aerosols. There have been a number of dated reviews evaluating nebulization of liposomes. While the information they shared is still accurate, this paper incorporates data from more recent publications to review the factors that affect aerosol performance. Recent reviews have comprehensively covered the development of dry powder liposomes for aerosolization and only the key aspects of those technologies will be summarized. There are now at least two inhaled liposomal products in late-stage clinical development: ARIKACE® (Insmed, NJ, USA), a liposomal amikacin, and Pulmaquin™ (Aradigm Corp., CA, USA), a liposomal ciprofloxacin, both of which treat a variety of patient populations with lung infections. This review also highlights the safety of inhaled liposomes and summarizes the clinical experience with liposomal formulations for pulmonary application.
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Borges MC, Marchica CL, Narayanan V, Ludwig MS. Allergen challenge during halothane compared to isoflurane anesthesia induces a more potent peripheral lung response. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2013; 189:144-52. [PMID: 23876740 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Allergen instillation in anaesthetized vs. awake animals results in increased distribution of allergen in the lung. Halothane is a more potent bronchodilator of the small airways than isoflurane. As small airways contribute to asthma pathogenesis, we questioned whether intranasal challenge under halothane vs. isoflurane anesthesia would lead to an increase in allergen deposition in the lung periphery and, consequently, an enhanced allergic response. C57Bl/6 mice were sensitized twice and repeatedly challenged with ovalbumin (OA) under halothane or isoflurane anesthesia. After OA-challenge, in vivo lung function was measured and BAL performed. Peribronchial and peripheral inflammation, cytokine mRNA production and collagen deposition were assessed. Airway hyperresponsiveness, BAL eosinophilia, peripheral lung inflammation, IL-5 mRNA production and collagen deposition were significantly increased in halothane OA-challenged compared to isoflurane OA-challenged mice. Airway challenge induced a higher level of airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation and remodeling under halothane than isoflurane anesthesia in a murine model of asthma. These differences may be due to increased allergen deposition in the small airways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos C Borges
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Sao Paulo Medical School at Ribeirao Preto, SP, Brazil.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanoparticles are increasingly being incorporated into the design of diagnostic imaging agents. Significant research efforts have been conducted with one class of lipid nanoparticle (liposomes) radiolabeled with gamma-emitting radionuclides as radiopharmaceuticals for scintigraphic imaging of cancer, inflammation/infection and sentinel lymph node detection. OBJECTIVE This article reviews the current literature with special emphasis on the clinical studies performed with liposome radiopharmaceuticals for detection of tumors, infectious/inflammatory sites or metastatic lymph nodes. Future uses of liposome radiopharmaceuticals are also described. METHODS Characteristics required of the radionuclide, liposome formulation and radiolabeling method for an effective radiopharmaceutical are discussed. A description of the procedures and instrumentation for conducting an imaging study with liposome radiopharmaceutical is included. Clinical studies using liposome radiopharmaceuticals are summarized. Future imaging applications of first- and second-generation radiolabeled liposomes for chemodosimetry and the specific targeting of a disease process are also described. RESULTS/CONCLUSION The choice of radionuclide, liposome formulation and radiolabeling method must be carefully considered during the design of a liposome radiopharmaceutical for a given application. After-loading and surface chelation methods are the most efficient and practical. Clinical studies with liposome radiopharmaceuticals demonstrated that a wide variety of tumors could be detected with good sensitivity and specificity. Liposome radiopharmaceuticals could also clearly detect various soft tissue and bone inflammatory/infectious lesions, and performed equal to or better than infection imaging agents that are approved at present. Yet, despite these favorable results, no liposome radiopharmaceutical has been approved for any indication. Some of the reasons for this can be attributed to reports of an unexpected infusion-related adverse reaction in two studies, the requirement of more complex liposome manufacturing procedures, and the adoption of other competing imaging procedures. Continued research of liposome radiopharmaceutical design based on a better understanding of liposome biology, improved radiolabeling methodologies and advances in gamma camera technology is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Goins
- The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX Department of Radiology, Mail Code 7800, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, San Antonio, TX 78229-3900, USA +1 210 567 5575 ; +1 210 567 5549 ;
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Bjerg A, Lundbäck B, Lötvall J. The future of combining inhaled drugs for COPD. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2012; 12:252-5. [PMID: 22465638 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Revised: 03/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality globally, and its prevalence is projected to continue to increase owing to trends in smoking. Treatment of COPD has evolved from the initial adaptations of drugs and treatment strategies successfully used in asthma into more specific pharmacological strategies following global guidelines. Bronchodilating anticholinergic and beta-2-stimulating agents and anti-inflammatory corticosteroid drugs delivered by inhalators are the mainstay of COPD treatment. Despite significant progress, current pharmacotherapies neither fully alleviate the airway obstruction in COPD, nor reverse the progressive nature of the disease. This review discusses inhalation therapies which have recently become clinically available or are being developed, with focus on combination therapies. There is accumulating evidence that the combination of two or all three drug classes, triple therapy, is superior to single drug therapy. Several fixed combinations of both currently available and novel molecules will be launched for clinical use within the next few years. Also, improved understanding of subgroups within the clinical spectrum of COPD, is likely to offer new potentials to improve COPD care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Bjerg
- Department of Internal Medicine, Krefting Research Centre, University of Gothenburg, Box 424, S-40530 Göteborg, Sweden.
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Therapeutic liposomal dry powder inhalation aerosols for targeted lung delivery. Lung 2012; 190:251-62. [PMID: 22274758 DOI: 10.1007/s00408-011-9360-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/17/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic liposomal powders (i.e., lipospheres and proliposomes) for dry powder inhalation aerosol delivery, formulated with phospholipids similar to endogenous lung surfactant, offer unique opportunities in pulmonary nanomedicine while offering controlled release and enhanced stability. Many pulmonary diseases such as lung cancer, tuberculosis (TB), cystic fibrosis (CF), bacterial and fungal lung infections, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) could greatly benefit from this type of pulmonary nanomedicine approach that can be delivered in a targeted manner by dry powder inhalers (DPIs). These delivery systems may require smaller doses for efficacy, exhibit reduced toxicity, fewer side effects, controlled drug release over a prolonged time period, and increased formulation stability as inhaled powders. This state-of-the-art review presents these novel aspects in depth.
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Elhissi A, Gill H, Ahmed W, Taylor K. Vibrating-mesh nebulization of liposomes generated using an ethanol-based proliposome technology. J Liposome Res 2011; 21:173-80. [PMID: 20684671 DOI: 10.3109/08982104.2010.505574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
This is the first study that evaluates the influence of the compartmental design of the micropump Aeroneb Go nebulizer and the viscosity of a proliposome hydration medium on vibrating-mesh aerosolization of liposomes. Ethanol-based proliposomes comprising soya phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol (1:1 mole ratio) were hydrated by using isotonic NaCl (0.9%) or sucrose (9.25%) solutions to generate liposomes that entrapped approximately 61% of the hydrophilic drug, salbutamol sulphate. Liposomes were aerosolized by the nebulizer to a two-stage impinger. For both formulations, the aerosol mass output was higher than the phospholipid output, indicating some accumulation of large liposomes or liposome aggregate within the nebulizer. Using NaCl (0.9%) solution as the dispersion medium, aerosol droplet size was much smaller and aerosol mass and phospholipid outputs were higher. This was attributed to the lower viscosity of the NaCl solution, resulting in a reduced retention of the aerosols in the "trap" of the nebulizer. For the entrapped salbutamol sulphate, although the "fine particle fraction" was relatively high (57.44%), size reduction of the liposomes during nebulization caused marked losses of the drug originally entrapped. Overall, liposomes generated from proliposomes when using this nebulizer showed high nebulization output and small droplet size. However, further work is required to reduce the losses of the originally entrapped drug from liposomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelbary Elhissi
- School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom.
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Ducharme FM, Ni Chroinin M, Greenstone I, Lasserson TJ. Addition of long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled steroids versus higher dose inhaled steroids in adults and children with persistent asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010:CD005533. [PMID: 20393943 PMCID: PMC4169793 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd005533.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In asthmatic patients inadequately controlled on inhaled corticosteroids and/or those with moderate persistent asthma, two main options are recommended: the combination of a long-acting inhaled ss2 agonist (LABA) with inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) or use of a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids. OBJECTIVES To determine the effect of the combination of long-acting ss(2) agonists and inhaled corticosteroids compared to a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids on the risk of asthma exacerbations, pulmonary function and on other measures of asthma control, and to look for characteristics associated with greater benefit for either treatment option. SEARCH STRATEGY We identified randomised controlled trials (RCTs) through electronic database searches (MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL), bibliographies of RCTs, clinical trial registries and correspondence with manufacturers until May 2008. SELECTION CRITERIA RCTs that compared the combination of inhaled LABA and ICS to a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids, in children and adults with asthma. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Two authors independently assessed methodological quality and extracted data. We obtained confirmation from the trialists when possible. The primary endpoint was the number of patients experiencing one or more asthma exacerbations requiring oral corticosteroids. MAIN RESULTS This review included 48 studies (15,155 participants including 1155 children and 14,000 adults). Participants were inadequately controlled on their current ICS regimen, experiencing ongoing symptoms and with generally moderate (FEV1 60% to 79% of predicted) airway obstruction. The studies tested the combination of salmeterol or formoterol with a median dose of 400 mcg/day of beclomethasone or equivalent (BDP-eq) compared to a median of 1000 mcg/day of BDP-eq, usually for 24 weeks or less. There was a statistically significantly lower risk of exacerbations requiring systemic corticosteroids in patients treated with LABA and ICS (RR 0.88, 95% CI 0.78 to 0.98, 27 studies, N = 10,578) from 11.45% to 10%, with a number needed to treat of 73 (median study duration: 12 weeks). The study results were dominated by adult studies; trial data from three paediatric studies showed a trend towards increased risk of rescue oral steroids (RR 1.24, 95% CI 0.58 to 2.66) and hospital admission (RR 2.21, 95% CI 0.74 to 6.64) associated with combination therapy. Overall, there was no statistically significant difference in the risk ratios for either hospital admission (RR 1.02, 95% CI 0.67 to 1.56) or serious adverse events (RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.37). The combination of LABA and ICS resulted in significantly greater but modest improvement from baseline in lung function, symptoms and rescue medication use than with higher ICS dose. Despite no significant group difference in the risk of overall adverse events (RR 0.99, 95% CI 0.95 to 1.03), there was an increase in the risk of tremor (RR 1.84, 95% CI 1.20 to 2.82) and a lower risk of oral thrush (RR 0.58, 95% CI 0.40 to 0.86)) in the LABA and ICS compared to the higher ICS group. There was no significant difference in hoarseness or headache between the treatment groups. The rate of withdrawals due to poor asthma control favoured the combination of LABA and ICS (RR 0.65, 95% CI 0.51 to 0.83). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS In adolescents and adults with sub-optimal control on low dose ICS monotherapy, the combination of LABA and ICS is modestly more effective in reducing the risk of exacerbations requiring oral corticosteroids than a higher dose of ICS. Combination therapy also led to modestly greater improvement in lung function, symptoms and use of rescue ss(2) agonists and to fewer withdrawals due to poor asthma control than with a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids. Apart from an increased rate of tremor and less oral candidiasis with combination therapy, the two options appear relatively safe in adults although adverse effects associated with long-term ICS treatment were seldom monitored. In children, combination therapy did not lead to a significant reduction, but rather a trend towards an increased risk, of oral steroid-treated exacerbations and hospital admissions. These trends raised concern about the safety of combination therapy in view of modest improvement in children under the age of 12 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francine M Ducharme
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine and the Department of Pediatrics, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
| | | | | | - Toby J Lasserson
- Community Health Sciences, St George’s, University of London, London, UK
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Ni Chroinin M, Greenstone I, Lasserson TJ, Ducharme FM. Addition of inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled steroids as first line therapy for persistent asthma in steroid-naive adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009:CD005307. [PMID: 19821344 PMCID: PMC4170786 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd005307.pub2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consensus statements recommend the addition of long-acting inhaled ss2-agonists (LABA) only in asthmatic patients who are inadequately controlled on inhaled corticosteroids (ICS). It is not uncommon for some patients to be commenced on ICS and LABA together as initial therapy. OBJECTIVES To compare the efficacy of combining inhaled corticosteroids with long-acting ss2-agonists (ICS+LABA) with inhaled corticosteroids alone (ICS alone) in steroid-naive children and adults with persistent asthma. We assessed two protocols: (1) LABA + ICS versus a similar dose of ICS (comparison 1) and (2) LABA + ICS versus a higher dose of ICS (comparison 2). SEARCH STRATEGY We identified randomised controlled trials through electronic database searches (May 2008). SELECTION CRITERIA Randomised trials comparing ICS + LABA with ICS alone in children and adults with asthma who had no inhaled corticosteroids in the preceding 28 days prior to enrolment. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Each author assessed studies independently for risk of bias and extracted data. We obtained confirmation from the trialists when possible. The primary endpoint was rate of patients with one or more asthma exacerbations requiring rescue systemic corticosteroids. Results are expressed as relative risks (RR) for dichotomous data and as mean differences (MD) or standardised mean differences (SMD) for continuous data. MAIN RESULTS Twenty-eight study comparisons drawn from 27 trials (22 adult; five paediatric) met the review entry criteria (8050 participants). Baseline data from the studies indicated that trial populations had moderate or mild airway obstruction (FEV1>/=65% predicted), and that they were symptomatic prior to randomisation. In comparison 1, the combination of ICS and LABA was not associated with a significantly lower risk of patients with exacerbations requiring oral corticosteroids (RR 1.04; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.73 to 1.47) or requiring hospital admissions (RR 0.38; 95% CI 0.09 to 1.65) compared to a similar dose of ICS alone. The combination of LABA and ICS led to a significantly greater improvement from baseline in FEV1 (0.12 L/sec; 95% CI 0.07 to 0.17), in symptoms (SMD -0.26; 95% CI -0.37 to -0.14) and in rescue ss2-agonist use (-0.41 puffs/day; 95% CI -0.73 to -0.09) compared with a similar dose of ICS alone. There was no significant group difference in the risk of serious adverse events (RR 1.15; 95% CI 0.64 to 2.09), any adverse events (RR 1.02; 95% CI 0.96 to 1.09), study withdrawals (RR 0.95; 95% CI 0.82 to 1.11), or withdrawals due to poor asthma control (RR 0.94; 95% CI 0.63 to 1.41).In comparison 2, the combination of LABA and ICS was associated with a higher risk of patients requiring oral corticosteroids (RR 1.24; 95% CI 1 to 1.53) and study withdrawal (RR 1.31; 95% CI 1.07 to 1.59) than a higher dose of ICS alone. For every 100 patients treated over 43 weeks, nine patients using a higher dose ICS compared to 11 (95% CI 9 to 14) on LABA and ICS suffered one or more exacerbations requiring rescue oral corticosteroids. There was a high level of statistical heterogeneity for FEV1 and morning peak flow. There was no statistically significant group difference in the risk of serious adverse events. Due to insufficient data we could not aggregate results for hospital admission, symptoms and other outcomes. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS In steroid-naive patients with mild to moderate airway obstruction, the combination of ICS and LABA does not significantly reduce the risk of patients with exacerbations requiring rescue oral corticosteroids over that achieved with a similar dose of ICS alone. However, it significantly improves lung function, reduces symptoms and marginally decreases rescue ss2-agonist use. Initiation of a higher dose of ICS is more effective at reducing the risk of exacerbations requiring rescue systemic corticosteroids, and of withdrawals, than combination therapy. Although children appeared to respond similarly to adults, no firm conclusions can be drawn regarding combination therapy in steroid-naive children, given the small number of children contributing data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Francine M Ducharme
- Department of Paediatrics, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
- Research Centre, CHU Sainte-Justine, Montreal, Canada
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Matsuo Y, Ishihara T, Ishizaki J, Miyamoto KI, Higaki M, Yamashita N. Effect of betamethasone phosphate loaded polymeric nanoparticles on a murine asthma model. Cell Immunol 2009; 260:33-8. [PMID: 19716124 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2009.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2009] [Revised: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Although inhaled steroids are the treatment of first choice to control asthma, administration of systemic steroids is required for treatment of asthmatic exacerbation and intractable asthma. To improve efficacy and reduce side effects, we examine the effects of betamethasone disodium phosphate (BP) encapsulated in biocompatible, biodegradable blended nanoparticles (stealth nanosteroids) on a murine model of asthma. These stealth nanosteroids were found to accumulate at the site of airway inflammation and exhibit anti-inflammatory activity. Significant decreases in BALF eosinophil number were maintained for 7 days with a single injection of nanosteroids containing 40 microg BP. Airway responsiveness was also attenuated by the injection of stealth nanosteroids. A single injection of 40 microg of free BP and 8 microg of free BP once daily for 5 days did not show any significant effects. We conclude that stealth nanosteroids achieve prolonged and higher benefits at the site of airway inflammation compared to free steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukiko Matsuo
- Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Kanazawa University, Japan
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Edsbäcker S, Wollmer P, Selroos O, Borgström L, Olsson B, Ingelf J. Do airway clearance mechanisms influence the local and systemic effects of inhaled corticosteroids? Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2007; 21:247-58. [PMID: 17950641 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2007.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2007] [Revised: 08/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/31/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The role of airway clearance in inhaled drug therapy is complex. Disease-induced bronchoconstriction results in a central drug-deposition pattern where mucociliary clearance is most efficient. When drug-induced bronchodilation is achieved, deposition and uptake becomes more peripheral, and because there is less mucociliary clearance in the periphery, this will lead to an unintentional increase in lung exposure and enhance the risk of systemic side effects. In addition, mucociliary clearance is pathologically reduced in both asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Among inhaled corticosteroids, rate of dissolution and lung uptake differs considerably. For the slowly dissolving, lipophilic steroids, the contribution of mucociliary clearance to these findings appears significant, and variability in lung and systemic exposure resulting from variable mucociliary function appears to be amplified. In addition, dose optimisation of non-stable asthma becomes more complex. The present review highlights the impact of mucociliary clearance on inhaled corticosteroid disposition and identifies critical areas where more research is needed.
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Greenstone IR, Ni Chroinin MN, Masse V, Danish A, Magdalinos H, Zhang X, Ducharme FM. Combination of inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists and inhaled steroids versus higher dose of inhaled steroids in children and adults with persistent asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005:CD005533. [PMID: 16235409 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd005533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In asthmatic patients inadequately controlled on inhaled corticosteroids and/or those with moderate persistent asthma, two main options are recommended: the combination of a long-acting inhaled beta2 agonist (LABA) with inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) or use of a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids. OBJECTIVES To determine, in asthmatic patients, the effect of the combination of long-acting beta2 agonists and inhaled corticosteroids compared to a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids on the incidence of asthma exacerbations, on pulmonary function and on other measures of asthma control and to look for characteristics associated with greater benefit for either treatment option. SEARCH STRATEGY We identified randomized controlled trials (RCTs) through electronic database searches (MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL), bibliographies of RCTs and correspondence with manufacturers until April 2004. SELECTION CRITERIA RCTs were included that compared the combination of inhaled LABA and ICS to a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids, in children aged 2 years and older, and in adults with asthma. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Studies were assessed independently by two authors for methodological quality and data extraction. Confirmation was obtained from the trialists when possible. The primary endpoint was rate of patients experiencing one or more asthma exacerbations requiring oral corticosteroids. Secondary endpoints included pulmonary function tests (PFTs), symptoms, use of rescue beta2 agonists, adverse events and withdrawal rates. The meta-analysis was done with RevMan Analyses and the meta-regression, with Stata. MAIN RESULTS Of 593 citations identified, 30 (three pediatric; 27 adult) trials were analysed recruiting 9509 participants, including one study providing two control-intervention comparisons. Only one trial included corticosteroid-naive patients. Participants were symptomatic, generally (N=20 trials) presenting with moderate (FEV1 60-79% of predicted) rather than mild airway obstruction. Trials tested the combination of salmeterol (N=22) or formoterol (N=8) with a median of 400 mcg of beclomethasone or equivalent (BDP-eq) compared to a median of 800 to 1000 mcg/day of BDP-eq. Trial duration was 24 weeks or less in all but four trials. There was no significant group difference in the rate of patients with exacerbations requiring systemic corticosteroids [N=15, RR=0.88 (95% CI: 0.77, 1.02)]. The combination of LABA and ICS resulted in greater improvement from baseline in FEV1 [N=7, WMD=0.10 L (95% CI: 0.07, 0.12)], in symptom-free days [N=8 , WMD=11.90% (95% CI:7.37, 16.44), random effects model], and in the daytime use of rescue beta2 agonists than a higher dose of ICS [N=4, WMD= -0.99 puffs/day (95% CI: -1.41, -0.58), random effects model]. There was no significant group difference in the rate of overall adverse events [N=15, RR=0.93 (95% CI: 0.84, 1.03), random effects model], or specific side effects, with the exception of a three-fold increase rate of tremor in the LABA group [N= 10, RR=2.96 (95%CI: 1.60, 5.45)]. The rate of withdrawals due to poor asthma control favoured the combination of LABA and ICS [N=20, RR=0.69 (95%CI: 0.52, 0.93)]. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS In adult asthmatics, there was no significant difference between the combination of LABA and ICS and a higher dose of ICS for the prevention of exacerbations requiring systemic corticosteroids. Overall, the combination therapy led to greater improvement in lung function, symptoms and use of rescue beta2 agonists, (although most of the results are from trials of up to 24 weeks duration). There were less withdrawals due to poor asthma control in this group than when using a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids. Apart from an increased rate of tremor, the two options appear safe although adverse effects associated with long-term ICS treatment were seldom monitored.
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Affiliation(s)
- I R Greenstone
- McGill University Health Centre, Pediatrics, 2300 Tupper Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3H 1P3.
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Ni CM, Greenstone IR, Ducharme FM. Addition of inhaled long-acting beta2-agonists to inhaled steroids as first line therapy for persistent asthma in steroid-naive adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005:CD005307. [PMID: 15846751 DOI: 10.1002/14651858.cd005307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Consensus statements recommend the addition of long-acting inhaled beta2-agonists only in asthmatic patients who are inadequately controlled on inhaled corticosteroids. OBJECTIVES To compare the efficacy of initiating anti-inflammatory therapy using the combination of inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting beta2-agonists (ICS+LABA) as compared to inhaled corticosteroids alone (ICS alone) in steroid-naive children and adults with persistent asthma. SEARCH STRATEGY We identified randomised controlled trials (RCTs) through electronic database searches (Cochrane Airways Group Specialised Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL) until April 2004, bibliographies of identified RCTs and correspondence with manufacturers. SELECTION CRITERIA RCTs comparing the combination of inhaled corticosteroids and long-acting beta2-agonists (ICS + LABA) to inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) alone in steroid-naive children and adults with asthma. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Studies were assessed independently by each reviewer for methodological quality and data extraction. Confirmation was obtained from the trialists when possible. The primary endpoint was rate of asthma exacerbations requiring systemic corticosteroids. Secondary endpoints included pulmonary function tests (PFTs), symptoms, use of other measures of asthma control, adverse events, and withdrawal rates. MAIN RESULTS Eighteen trials met the inclusion criteria; nine (totaling 1061 adults) contributed sufficient data to be analysed. Baseline forced expiratory volume in one minute (FEV1) was less than 80% predicted value in four trials and equal to or greater than 80% in five trials. The long-acting beta2-agonists (LABA) formoterol (N=2) or salmeterol (N=7) were added to a dose of at least 800 microg/day of beclomethasone dipropionate (BDP) equivalent of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in three trials and to at least 400 microg/day in the six remaining trials. Treatment with ICS plus LABA was not associated with a lower risk of exacerbations requiring oral corticosteroids than ICS alone (relative risk (RR) 1.2; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.8 to 1.9). FEV1 improved significantly with LABA (weighted mean difference (WMD) 210 ml; 95% CI 120 to 300), as did symptom-free days (WMD 10.74%; 95% CI 1.86 to 19.62), but the change in use of rescue fast-acting beta2-agonists was not significantly different between the groups (WMD -0.4 puff/day, 95% CI -0.9 to 0.1). There was no significant group difference in adverse events (RR 1.1; 95% CI 0.8 to 1.5), withdrawals (RR 0.9; 95% CI 0.6 to 1.2), or withdrawals due to poor asthma control (RR 1.3; 95% CI 0.5 to 3.4). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS In steroid-naive patients with mild to moderate airway obstruction, the initiation of inhaled corticosteroids in combination with long-acting beta2-agonists does not significantly reduce the rate of exacerbations over that achieved with inhaled corticosteroids alone; it does improve lung function and symptom-free days but does not reduce rescue beta2-agonist use as compared to inhaled steroids alone. Both options appear safe. There is insufficient evidence at present to recommend use of combination therapy rather than ICS alone as a first-line treatment.
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Cazzola M, Dahl R. Inhaled Combination Therapy With Long-Acting β 2 -Agonists and Corticosteroids in Stable COPD. Chest 2004; 126:220-37. [PMID: 15249466 DOI: 10.1378/chest.126.1.220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-acting beta(2)-agonists (LABAs) have been shown to be effective first-line bronchodilators in the treatment of COPD patients, and inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) have been shown to reduce the frequency and/or severity of exacerbations in COPD patients. The concomitant use of a LABA and an ICS can influence both airway obstruction (ie, smooth muscle contraction, increased cholinergic tone, and loss of elastic recoil), and airway inflammation (ie, increased numbers of neutrophils, macrophages, and CD8+ lymphocytes, elevated interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels, and protease/antiprotease imbalance). They are also able to reduce the total number of bacteria adhering to the respiratory mucosa in a concentration-dependent manner without altering the bacterial tropism for mucosa, and to preserve ciliated cells. Several clinical trials support the concept of inhaled combination therapy with LABAs and corticosteroids in stable COPD patients. This type of therapy not only improves airflow obstruction but also provides clinical benefits, as manifested by sustained reduction in overall symptoms, improvements in health-related quality of life, and reductions in exacerbations. All of these effects are very important because, despite recent advances in our understanding of COPD and its treatment, therapy remains suboptimal for a considerable number of patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Cazzola
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Unit of Pneumology and Allergology, Antonio Cardarelli Hospital, Naples, Italy.
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