Is there an ACE ID - ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms interaction that influences sprint performance?

Genetics and sports performance: the present and future in the identification of talent for sports based on DNA testing

The impact of genetics on physiology and sports performance is one of the most debated research aspects in sports sciences. Nearly 200 genetic polymorphisms have been found to influence sports performance traits, and over 20 polymorphisms may condition the status of the elite athlete. However, with the current evidence, it is certainly too early a stage to determine how to use genotyping as a tool for predicting exercise/sports performance or improving current methods of training. Research on this topic presents methodological limitations such as the lack of measurement of valid exercise performance phenotypes that make the study results difficult to interpret. Additionally, many studies present an insufficient cohort of athletes, or their classification as elite is dubious, which may introduce expectancy effects. Finally, the assessment of a progressively higher number of polymorphisms in the studies and the introduction of new analysis tools, such as the total genotype score (TGS) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), have produced a considerable advance in the power of the analyses and a change from the study of single variants to determine pathways and systems associated with performance. The purpose of the present study was to comprehensively review evidence on the impact of genetics on endurance- and power-based exercise performance to clearly determine the potential utility of genotyping for detecting sports talent, enhancing training, or preventing exercise-related injuries, and to present an overview of recent research that has attempted to correct the methodological issues found in previous investigations.

Muscle Work and Its Relationship with ACE and ACTN3 Polymorphisms Are Associated with the Improvement of Explosive Strength

Background: The potential influence of genetics in athletic performance allows the search for genetic profiles associated with muscular work for the orientation of strength training and sports selection. The purpose of the study was to analyze four muscular exercises for effectiveness in improving explosive strength variables, associated to the genetics in Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) and α-actinin-3 (ACTN3) polymorphisms. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted on a sample of 80 subjects allocated into four groups: concentric muscle work (CMW), eccentric muscle work (EMW), concentric-eccentric muscle (C-EMW) work and isometric muscular work (IMW), by block and gender randomization. Vertical jump, long jump, power jump, and speed were measured to study explosive strength. Genotypic frequencies of ACE (rs4646994) and ACTN3 (rs1815739) were obtained by polymerase chain reaction. Results: ACE gen showed significant improvements regarding the DD genotype in the Sargent test (p = 0.003) and sprint velocity test (p = 0.017). In the ACTN3 gene, the RR variable obtained improvement results with regard to RX and XX variables in long jump (p < 0.001), Sargent test (p < 0.001) and power jump (p = 0.004). Conclusions: The selected genes demonstrated an influence on the muscle work and the improvement in explosive strength variables with a decisive role regarding the type of muscle work performed.

Association of Genetic Variances in ADRB1 and PPARGC1a with Two-Kilometre Running Time-Trial Performance in Australian Football League Players: A Preliminary Study

Genetic variants in the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) (rs4343), alpha-actinin-3 (ACTN3) (rs1815739), adrenoceptor-beta-1 (ADRB1) (rs1801253), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PPARGC1A) (rs8192678) genes have previously been associated with elite athletic performance. This study assessed the influence of polymorphisms in these candidate genes towards endurance test performance in 46 players from a single Australian Football League (AFL) team. Each player provided saliva buccal swab samples for DNA analysis and genotyping and were required to perform two independent two-kilometre running time-trials, six weeks apart. Linear mixed models were created to account for repeated measures over time and to determine whether player genotypes are associated with overall performance in the two-kilometre time-trial. The results showed that the ADRB1 Arg389Gly CC (p = 0.034) and PPARGC1A Gly482Ser GG (p = 0.031) genotypes were significantly associated with a faster two-kilometre time-trial. This is the first study to link genetic polymorphism to an assessment of endurance performance in Australian Football and provides justification for further exploratory or confirmatory studies.

ACVR1B rs2854464 Is Associated with Sprint/Power Athletic Status in a Large Cohort of Europeans but Not Brazilians

Skeletal muscle strength and mass, major contributors to sprint/power athletic performance, are influenced by genetics. However, to date, only a handful of genetic variants have been associated with sprint/power performance. The ACVR1B A allele (rs rs2854464) has previously been associated with increased muscle-strength in non-athletic cohort. However, no follow-up and/or replications studies have since been conducted. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare the genotype distribution of ACVR1B rs2854464 between endurance athletes (E), sprint/power (S/P) athletes, mixed athletes (M), and non-athletic control participants in 1672 athletes (endurance athletes, n = 482; sprint/power athletes, n = 578; mixed athletes, n = 498) and 1089 controls (C) of both European Caucasians (Italian, Polish and Russians) and Brazilians. We have also compared the genotype distribution according to the athlete's level of competition (elite vs. sub-elite). DNA extraction and genotyping were performed using various methods. Fisher's exact test (adjusted for multiple comparisons) was used to test whether the genotype distribution of rs2854464 (AA, AG and GG) differs between groups. The A allele was overrepresented in S/P athletes compared with C in the Caucasian sample (adjusted p = 0.048), whereas there were no differences in genotype distribution between E athletes and C, in neither the Brazilian nor the Caucasian samples (adjusted p > 0.05). When comparing all Caucasian athletes regardless of their sporting discipline to C, we found that the A allele was overrepresented in athletes compared to C (adjusted p = 0.024). This association was even more pronounced when only elite-level athletes were considered (adjusted p = 0.00017). In conclusion, in a relatively large cohort of athletes from Europe and South America we have shown that the ACVR1B rs2854464 A allele is associated with sprint/power performance in Caucasians but not in Brazilian athletes. This reinforces the notion that phenotype-genotype associations may be ethnicity-dependent.

Association of Angiotensin Converting Enzyme I/D and α-actinin-3 R577X Genotypes with Growth Factors and Physical Fitness in Korean Children

This study analyzed the differences in aerobic and anaerobic exercise ability and growth-related indicators, depending on the polymorphism of the ACE and the ACTN3 genes, to understand the genetic influence of exercise ability in the growth process of children. The subjects of the study consisted of elementary school students (n=856, age 10.32±0.07 yr). The anthropometric parameters, physical fitness and growth factors were compared among groups of the ACE I/D or the ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms. There were no significant differences between the anthropometric parameters, physical fitness and growth factors for the ACE gene ID or the ACTN3 gene R577X polymorphism. However, the DD type of ACE gene was highest in the side step test (p<0.05), and the DD type was significantly higher than the II+ID type (p<0.05) in the early bone age. The combined group of the ACE gene II+ID and the ACTN3 gene XX type significantly showed lower early bone age (p< 0.05). This study did not find any individual or compounding effects of the polymorphism in the ACE I/D or the ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms on the anthropometric parameters, physical fitness and growth factors of Korean children. However, the exercise experience and the DD type of the ACE gene may affect the early maturity of the bones.

Interaction Between ACE I/D and ACTN3 R557X Polymorphisms in Polish Competitive Swimmers

We hypothesized that the ACE ID / ACTN3 R577X genotype combination was associated with sprint and endurance performance. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine the interaction between both ACE ID and ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms and sprint and endurance performance in swimmers. Genomic DNA was extracted from oral epithelial cells using GenElute Mammalian Genomic DNA Miniprep Kit (Sigma, Germany). All samples were genotyped using a real-time poly- merase chain reaction. The ACE I/D and the ACTN3 R577X genotype frequencies met Hardy-Weinberg expectations in both swimmers and controls. When the two swimmer groups, long distance swimmers (LDS) and short distance swimmers (SDS), were compared with control subjects in a single test, a significant association was found only for the ACE polymorphism, but not for ACTN3. Additionally, four ACE/ACTN3 combined genotypes (ID/RX, ID/XX, II/RX and II/XX) were statistically significant for the LDS versus Control comparison, but none for the SDS versus Control comparison. The ACE I/D and the ACTN3 R577X polymorphisms did not show any association with sprint swimming, taken individually or in combination. In spite of numerous previous reports of associations with athletic status or sprint performance in other sports, the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism, in contrast to ACE I/D, was not significantly associated with elite swimming status when considered individually. However, the combined analysis of the two loci suggests that the co-occurrence of the ACE I and ACTN3 X alleles may be beneficial to swimmers who compete in long distance races.

PPARA intron polymorphism associated with power performance in 30-s anaerobic Wingate Test

To date, polymorphisms in several genes have been associated with a strength/power performance including alpha 3 actinin, ciliary neurotrophic factor, vitamin D receptor, or angiotensin I converting enzyme, underlining the importance of genetic component of the multifactorial strength/power-related phenotypes. The single nucleotide variation in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha gene (PPARA) intron 7 G/C (rs4253778; g.46630634G>C) has been repeatedly found to play a significant role in response to different types of physical activity. We investigated the effect of PPARA intron 7 G/C polymorphism specifically on anaerobic power output in a group of 77 elite male Czech ice hockey players (18-36 y). We determined the relative peak power per body weight (Pmax.kg(-1)) and relative peak power per fat free mass (W.kg(-1)FFM) during the 30-second Wingate Test (WT30) on bicycle ergometer (Monark 894E Peak bike, MONARK, Sweden). All WT30s were performed during the hockey season. Overall genotype frequencies were 50.6% GG homozygotes, 40.3% CG heterozygotes, and 9.1% CC homozygotes. We found statistically significant differences in Pmax.kg(-1) and marginally significant differences in Pmax.kg(-1)FFM values in WT30 between carriers and non-carriers for C allele (14.6 ± 0.2 vs. 13.9 ± 0.3 W.kg(-1) and 15.8 ± 0.2 vs. 15.2 ± 0.3 W.kg(-1)FFM, P = 0.036 and 0.12, respectively). Furthermore, Pmax.kg(-1)FFM strongly positively correlated with the body weight only in individuals with GG genotypes (R = 0.55; p<0.001). Our results indicate that PPARA 7C carriers exhibited higher speed strength measures in WT30. We hypothesize that C allele carriers within the cohort of trained individuals may possess a metabolic advantage towards anaerobic metabolism.

Molecular analysis of genetic variation in angiotensin I-converting enzyme identifies no association with sporting ability: First report from Indian population

INTRODUCTION:

A polymorphism in the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene was the first performance enhancing polymorphisms (PEPs) to be identified and correlated with athletic abilities. This polymorphism (rs. 5186) is the absence (deletion; D allele), rather than the presence (insertion, I allele) of 287bp Alu repeat element in intron 16. However, the association of ACE I/D polymorphism in sports abilities have been contradicted and debated. No study has evaluated the ACE gene polymorphism in Indian athletes so far. Hence, the genotype distribution and allelic frequency of ACE gene in selected Indian athletic and non-athletic population was studied.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

A total of 147 athletes and 131 controls were genotyped for the ACE gene polymorphism using PCR.

RESULTS:

No significant association was observed between the allelic frequencies of ACE gene in controls and athletes on a whole, as well as after sub-categorizing the athletes based on the type of sport they played (P > 0.1). However, a higher representation of I allele was observed in the athletes.

CONCLUSION:

ACE genotyping studies need to focus on truly elite athletes of a single sporting discipline, to be able to find an association. The ACE I/D polymorphism may not be considered a marker for human performance, but can be further studied in combination with other potent performance enhancing polymorphisms.

ACE I/D, ACTN3 R577X, PPARD T294C and PPARGC1A Gly482Ser polymorphisms and physical fitness in Taiwanese late adolescent girls

Physical performance of youth is influenced by various factors, including body composition, biological maturity status, level of habitual physical activity, and muscular strength. Muscular strength has been largely attributed to genetic effects. To exclude possible confounding effects from various acquired factors, this study examined the relationships between polymorphisms of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), α-actinin-3 (ACTN3), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPARD), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1 alpha (PPARGC1A) genes and performance as measured by six fitness tests (handgrip strength of dominant hand, 30- and 60-s sit-ups, standing long jump, 60-m dash, and 800-m run) in 170 sedentary adolescent girls with the adjustment of anthropometric characteristics. We found that subjects with the ACE DD genotype were significantly heavier than those with I allele, while those with the ACTN3 RR genotype had higher fat-free mass percentage (FFM%) than those with the XX genotype. In addition, those with the PPARD TT genotype were significantly taller, heavier, and had a greater FFM than those with the CC genotype. Subjects with the ACE DD, ACTN3 RR and PPARD TC genotype had better performance in handgrip strength, 30- and 60-s sit-up tests, and standing long jump, respectively, when individual gene was analyzed independently after adjusting anthropometric characteristics. In the gene combination analysis, subjects with ACE DD, ACTN3 RR and PPARD TT genotype had significantly greater performance in handgrip strength. Overall, the results indicate that the genes studied have a modest influence on individual performance as assessed by specific fitness and strength tests in female late adolescents.

Advances in exercise, fitness, and performance genomics in 2010

This review of the exercise genomics literature emphasizes the strongest articles published in 2010 as defined by sample size, quality of phenotype measurements, quality of the exercise program or physical activity exposure, study design, adjustment for multiple testing, quality of genotyping, and other related study characteristics. One study on voluntary running wheel behavior was performed in 448 mice from 41 inbred strains. Several quantitative trait loci for running distance, speed, and duration were identified. Several studies on the alpha-3 actinin (ACTN3) R577X nonsense polymorphism and the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) I/D polymorphism were reported with no clear evidence for a joint effect, but the studies were generally underpowered. Skeletal muscle RNA abundance at baseline for 29 transcripts and 11 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were both found to be predictive of the V˙O2max response to exercise training in one report from multiple laboratories. None of the 50 loci associated with adiposity traits are known to influence physical activity behavior. However, physical activity seems to reduce the obesity-promoting effects of at least 12 of these loci. Evidence continues to be strong for a role of gene-exercise interaction effects on the improvement in insulin sensitivity after exposure to regular exercise. SNPs in the cAMP-responsive element binding position 1 (CREB1) gene were associated with training-induced HR response, in the C-reactive protein (CRP) gene with training-induced changes in left ventricular mass, and in the methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene with carotid stiffness in low-fit individuals. We conclude that progress is being made but that high-quality research designs and replication studies with large sample sizes are urgently needed.

ACTN3 genotype, athletic status, and life course physical capability: meta-analysis of the published literature and findings from nine studies

The ACTN3 R577X (rs1815739) genotype has been associated with athletic status and muscle phenotypes, although not consistently. Our objective was to conduct a meta-analysis of the published literature on athletic status and investigate its associations with physical capability in several new population-based studies. Relevant data were extracted from studies in the literature, comparing genotype frequencies between controls and sprint/power and endurance athletes. For life course physical capability, data were used from two studies of adolescents and seven studies in the Healthy Ageing across the Life Course (HALCyon) collaborative research program, involving individuals aged between 53 and 90+ years. We found evidence from the published literature to support the hypothesis that in Europeans the RR genotype is more common among sprint/power athletes compared with their controls. There is currently no evidence that the X allele is advantageous to endurance athleticism. We found no association between R577X and grip strength (P = 0.09, n = 7,672 in males; P = 0.90, n = 7,839 in females), standing balance, timed get up and go, or chair rises in our studies of physical capability. The ACTN3 R577X genotype is associated with sprint/power athletic status in Europeans, but does not appear to be associated with objective measures of physical capability in the general population. Hum Mutat 32:1–11, 2011. © 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Does the ACE I/D polymorphism, alone or in combination with the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism, influence muscle power phenotypes in young, non-athletic adults?

We investigated the association of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene (ACE) insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism, alone or in combination with the α-actinin-3 gene (ACTN3) R577X polymorphism, with jumping (vertical squat and counter-movement jump tests) and sprint ability (30 m dash) in non-athletic, healthy young adults [N = 281 (214 male), mean (SD) age 21 (2) years]. We did not observe any effect of the ACE I/D polymorphism on study phenotypes. We repeated the analyses separately in men and women and the results did not materially change. Likewise, the mean estimates of the study phenotypes were similar in subjects with the genotype combinations ACE II + ID and ACTN3 XX or ACE DD and ACTN3 RR + RX. We found no association between the ACE DD and ACTN3 RR + RX genotype combination and performance (≥90th of the sex-specific percentile). In summary, though the ACE I/D polymorphism is a strong candidate to modulate some exercise-related phenotypes or athletic performance status, this polymorphism, alone or in combination with the ACTN3 R577X polymorphism, does not seem to exert a major influence in the muscle 'explosive' power of young healthy adults, as assessed during multi-joint exercise tests.