Aerobic and Anaerobic Performances in Tethered Swimming

Physical performance determinants in competitive youth swimmers: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Youth swimming performance is determined by several physiological, biomechanical and anthropometric characteristics. This review aimed to identify physical performance determinants of youth swimming performance, assessing strength, power, anaerobic, aerobic and body composition measures. ̇ METHODS: Searches were conducted in electronic databases (PubMed and Web of Science) using keywords relating to swimming and physiological measures, supplemented by citation searching of similar reviews. A total of 843 studies were identified in the initial search. The following inclusion criteria were used: participants were competitive/trained swimmers; swimming time-trial or event was conducted; data was provided on one or more physiological parameters; study was published in English and peer-reviewed. A total of 43 studies met the inclusion criteria. Risk of bias was assessed using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist.

RESULTS

Cross-sectional studies scored between 4-8 and randomised-controlled trials scored 8-9 on their respective JBI checklists. Youth swimming performance was determined by muscle strength, muscle power, lean body mass, anaerobic and aerobic metabolism measures in most studies, where improved performance values of these variables were conducive to swimming performance. Body fat percentage did not have a clear relationship in youth swimming performance.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings of this review suggest that greater levels of muscle strength, muscle power and lean body mass are favourable in swimming performance, with muscle strength and muscle power particularly beneficial for start and turn performance. Anaerobic and aerobic metabolism measures were good determinants of swimming performance, with middle- and long-distance events more influenced by the latter. Body fat percentage has a nuanced relationship with swimming performance, where further investigation is required. Findings were inconsistent across studies, potentially due to unidentified confounding factors.

KEY POINTS

• Greater muscular strength and power qualities, anaerobic and aerobic capacities, and lean body mass are conducive to swimming performance. • Body fat percentage has a nuanced relationship with swimming performance. • Practitioners should consider general strength and power training as a useful tool to enhance performance in their youth competitors.

Reliability of a semi-tethered front crawl sprint performance test in adolescent swimmers

This study aimed to evaluate the test-retest reliability of a sprint performance test with semi-tethered front crawl swimming to indirectly assess the current potential to perform at maximal anaerobic effort in adolescent swimmers. Eight adolescent swimmers participated in this study (gender: females (n = 4) aged 13.0 ± 0.8 years, body height 1.6 ± 0.0 m, body mass 50.1 ± 4.5 kg; and males (n = 4) aged 13.3 ± 1.3 years, body height 1.7 ± 0.1 m, body mass 59.0 ± 8.2 kg. The testing protocol consisted of two trials of 25 m semi-tethered front crawl swimming with maximal effort and with 1 kg resisted isotonic load. Velocity data were recorded automatically by the 1080 Sprint device for 15 m (between 3 m and 18 m). The Fast Fourier Transform algorithm filtered raw instantaneous swimming velocity data in distance (time) function. A third-degree polynomial was used to extract the individual velocity profile, from which the following variables were chosen for test-retest reliability and the assessment of sprint performance: ttrial15, vmax, vmin, tvto max, tvat max, Dto vmax, Dat vmax, fatigue index. Parameters such as vmax, vmin, and ttrial15 were estimated from swimming velocity profiles and considered as reliable. The CV showed low variance <5%; while ICC2,1 demonstrated respectively good (ICC2,1: 0.88), very good (ICC2,1: 0.95), and excellent (ICC2,1: 0.98) rate of relative reliability; and the Bland-Altman index revealed an acceptable agreement (LoA ≤5%) between two measurements. The sprint performance test based on semi-tethered front crawl swimming confirmed that ttrial15, vmax, and vmin were reliable variables to indirectly indicate a potential to perform the maximal anaerobic effort among adolescent swimmers. The evaluation of the swimming velocity profiles allows coaches to monitor the adaptive changes of performance during the training process.

Does Pool Performance of Elite Triathletes Predict Open-Water Performance?

The capacity of laboratory tests to predict competition performance has been broadly researched across several endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse how pool swimming performance can predict the result of the swimming segment in triathlon competitions and compare predictability differences based on competition level and distance. Eighteen male triathletes participated in the study. Three were ranked world-class, ten elite/international level, and five highly trained/national level. A total of sixty-one graded multi-stage swimming tests were conducted. Blood lactate was measured to calculate the following hypothetical predictor variables: speed at lactate threshold 1 (LT1), speed at lactate threshold 2 (LT2), and speed in the last repetition of the test (SL200). The following data were collected for a total of 75 races: time in the swimming leg (TSL); position after the swimming leg (PSL); time difference with the first triathlete after the swimming leg (DFT); and final race position. The race levels were divided according to participant levels as follows: world series (WS) (n = 22); World Cup (WC) (n = 22); Continental Cup (CC) (n = 19); national championship (N) (n = 5); and local race (L) (n = 5). Based on distance, they were divided into Olympic distance (OD) (n = 37) and sprint distance (SD) (n = 38). A moderate to strong positive association was found between LT1, LT2, SL200 and PSL and TSl at all race levels except for the SD CC, SD WC, and OD CC races, where no or weak-to-moderate correlations were found. The present study demonstrated that performance measured in a graded multi-stage pool lactate test can predict performance in a triathlon swimming segment. This finding is highly useful for coaches as it can help them to obtain a reliable measure of the triathlete's specific capabilities in the swimming leg.

Oxygen Uptake Kinetics and Time Limit at Maximal Aerobic Workload in Tethered Swimming

This study aimed to apply an incremental tethered swimming test (ITT) with workloads (WL) based on individual rates of front crawl mean tethered force (Fmean) for the identification of the upper boundary of heavy exercise (by means of respiratory compensation point, RCP), and therefore to describe oxygen uptake kinetics (VO₂k) and time limit (t_Lim) responses to WL corresponding to peak oxygen uptake (WLVO_2peak). Sixteen swimmers of both sexes (17.6 ± 3.8 years old, 175.8 ± 9.2 cm, and 68.5 ± 10.6 kg) performed the ITT until exhaustion, attached to a weight-bearing pulley-rope system for the measurements of gas exchange threshold (GET), RCP, and VO_2peak. The WL was increased by 5% from 30 to 70% of Fmean at every minute, with Fmean being measured by a load cell attached to the swimmers during an all-out 30 s front crawl bout. The pulmonary gas exchange was sampled breath by breath, and the mathematical description of VO₂k used a first-order exponential with time delay (TD) on the average of two rest-to-work transitions at WLVO_2peak. The mean VO_2peak approached 50.2 ± 6.2 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 and GET and RCP attained (respectively) 67.4 ± 7.3% and 87.4 ± 3.4% VO_2peak. The average t_Lim was 329.5 ± 63.6 s for both sexes, and all swimmers attained VO_2peak (100.4 ± 3.8%) when considering the primary response of VO₂ (A_1' = 91.8 ± 6.7%VO_2peak) associated with the VO₂ slow component (SC) of 10.7 ± 6.7% of end-exercise VO₂, with time constants of 24.4 ± 9.8 s for A_1' and 149.3 ± 29.1 s for SC. Negative correlations were observed for t_Lim to VO_2peak, WLVO_2peak, GET, RCP, and EEVO₂ (r = -0.55, -0.59, -0.58, -0.53, and -0.50). Thus, the VO₂k during tethered swimming at WLVO_2peak reproduced the physiological responses corresponding to a severe domain. The findings also demonstrated that t_Lim was inversely related to aerobic conditioning indexes and to the ability to adjust oxidative metabolism to match target VO₂ demand during exercise.

Effects of 4 weeks of β-alanine supplementation on aerobic fitness in water polo players

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the ergogenic effects of 4 weeks of β-alanine supplementation on peak oxygen uptake (V˙O2peak) and force associated with V˙O2peak (FV˙O2peak) during a tethered swimming graded exercise test, and a three-minute all-out effort (3min_ALL-OUT) in water polo players. Twenty-two male national competitive level water polo players were randomly assigned to receive either 4 weeks of β-alanine (n = 11) or a placebo (n = 11) (i.e., 4.8 g·day^-1 for 10 days, then6.4 g·day^-1 for 18 days, resulting in 163.2 g over 28 days). The participants performed the TS_GET and 3min_ALL-OUT before and after the supplementation period. There were no significant interaction effects between-groups for any variable, however, the magnitude-based inferences analyses showed a possibly beneficial effect (74%) of β-alanine supplementation on FV˙O2peak compared to placebo treatment (Δ% [post–pre] for Placebo group = -5.2%; Δ% [post–pre] for β-alanine group = +0.7%). Only the β-alanine group presented a significant reduction in V˙O2peak expressed in absolute values (PRE = 3.3±0.6L·min^-1; POST = 3.0±0.4L·min^-1; p = .021). Similarly, only the β-alanine group presented a significant increase in critical force (PRE = 51.2±10.4N; POST = 56.5±13.1N; p = .044) and a reduction in the curvature constant parameter (W'; PRE = 2998.0±1103.7N·s; POST = 2224.6±1058.9N·s; p = .049). Thus, we can conclude that 4 weeks of β-alanine supplementation presented mixed results in water polo players, indicating that this nutritional strategy may not be effective in improving parameters of the TS_GET and 3min_{ALL-OUT .}

Reliability and Validity of Tethered Swimming Lactate Minimum Test and Their Relationship With Performance in Young Swimmers

PURPOSE

To test the reliability and validity of tethered swimming lactate minimum test in young swimmers.

METHODS

Lactate minimum test was performed twice to test the reliability (experiment 1; n = 13). In addition, the validity was investigated through lactate minimum test relationships with tethered swimming lactate threshold and peak force obtained during graded exercise test (experiment 2; n = 11). Finally, the correlations with mean speeds observed during 200-m (s200m) and 30-minute continuous efforts (s30min) were also analyzed (experiment 3; n = 15). In all experiments, the lactate minimum test began with 3-minute all-out effort to induce lactatemia, followed by an exhaustive graded exercise test.

RESULTS

The lactate minimum intensity and mean force during the entire 3-minute all-out effort (MF) showed high reliability (coefficient of variation < 8.9% and intraclass correlation coefficient > .93). The lactate minimum intensity was not different compared with lactate threshold (P = .22), presenting high correlations (r = .92) and agreement (95% limits of agreement = ±7.9 N). The mean force during the entire 3-minute all-out effort was similar to peak force obtained during graded exercise test (P = .41), presenting significant correlations (r = .88) and high indices of agreement (95% limits of agreement = ±11.3 N). In addition, lactate minimum test parameters correlated both with mean speeds observed during 200-m (r > .74) and 30-minute continuous efforts (r > .70).

CONCLUSION

Thus, tethered swimming lactate minimum test can be used for training recommendations and to monitor aerobic adaptations in young swimmers.

Relationship of aerobic and anaerobic parameters with 400 m front crawl swimming performance

The aims of the present study were to investigate the relationship of aerobic and anaerobic parameters with 400 m performance, and establish which variable better explains long distance performance in swimming. Twenty-two swimmers (19.1±1.5 years, height 173.9±10.0 cm, body mass 71.2±10.2 kg; 76.6±5.3% of 400 m world record) underwent a lactate minimum test to determine lactate minimum speed (LMS) (i.e., aerobic capacity index). Moreover, the swimmers performed a 400 m maximal effort to determine mean speed (S400m), peak oxygen uptake (V.O2PEAK) and total anaerobic contribution (C_ANA). The C_ANA was assumed as the sum of alactic and lactic contributions. Physiological parameters of 400 m were determined using the backward extrapolation technique (V.O2PEAK and alactic contributions of C_ANA) and blood lactate concentration analysis (lactic anaerobic contributions of C_ANA). The Pearson correlation test and backward multiple regression analysis were used to verify the possible correlations between the physiological indices (predictor factors) and S400m (independent variable) (p < 0.05). Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. Significant correlations were observed between S400m (1.4±0.1 m·s^-1) and LMS (1.3±0.1 m·s^-1; r = 0.80), V.O2PEAK (4.5±3.9 L·min^-1; r = 0.72) and C_ANA (4.7±1.5 L·O₂; r= 0.44). The best model constructed using multiple regression analysis demonstrated that LMS and V.O2PEAK explained 85% of the 400 m performance variance. When backward multiple regression analysis was performed, C_ANA lost significance. Thus, the results demonstrated that both aerobic parameters (capacity and power) can be used to predict 400 m swimming performance.

Is Speed Reserve Related to Critical Speed and Anaerobic Distance Capacity in Swimming?

This study examines the relationship between speed reserve (SRes), critical swimming speed (CSS), and anaerobic distance capacity (ADC) and their efficacy in determining training adaptations. Swimmers with previous competitive experience participated in an 8-week aerobic training program (experimental group: E; n = 15, age: 22.29 ± 0.95 years) and a control group refrained from training during the same period (C; n = 6, age: 22.25 ± 2.22 years). Speed reserve was determined before and after training from the speed difference between the 50 and 400 m maximum tests. Both CSS and ADC were calculated using 2 different combinations of distances (50 and 400 m: CSS2/ADC2; 50, 100, and 400 m: CSS3/ADC3) by applying the distance-time linear regression model. CSS2 and CSS3 of the E group showed a negative correlation, whereas ADC2 and ADC3 showed a positive correlation, with SRes before and after the training period (r ≥ -0.66, r ≥ 0.88, p ≤ 0.05). CSS2 and CSS3 increased by 5.5 ± 3.2 and 6.0 ± 3.2%, whereas ADC2, ADC3, and SRes decreased by 12.0 ± 9.4, 9.0 ± 11.2, and 8.1 ± 8.4% with the training program (p ≤ 0.05). These findings suggest that SRes, as calculated from distances of 50 and 400 m, shows strong relationships with CSS and ADC and may be used as an indicator of training-induced changes. This information is expected to facilitate training control and evaluation in a day-to-day basis.