1
|
Rein V, Gao H, Heenen HH, Sghaier W, Manikas AC, Tsakonas C, Saedi M, Margraf JT, Galiotis C, Renaud G, Konovalov OV, Groot IMN, Reuter K, Jankowski M. Operando Characterization and Molecular Simulations Reveal the Growth Kinetics of Graphene on Liquid Copper During Chemical Vapor Deposition. ACS NANO 2024; 18:12503-12511. [PMID: 38688475 PMCID: PMC11100484 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c02070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, liquid metal catalysts have emerged as a compelling choice for the controllable, large-scale, and high-quality synthesis of two-dimensional materials. At present, there is little mechanistic understanding of the intricate catalytic process, though, of its governing factors or what renders it superior to growth at the corresponding solid catalysts. Here, we report on a combined experimental and computational study of the kinetics of graphene growth during chemical vapor deposition on a liquid copper catalyst. By monitoring the growing graphene flakes in real time using in situ radiation-mode optical microscopy, we explore the growth morphology and kinetics over a wide range of CH4-to-H2 pressure ratios and deposition temperatures. Constant growth rates of the flakes' radius indicate a growth mode limited by precursor attachment, whereas methane-flux-dependent flake shapes point to limited precursor availability. Large-scale free energy simulations enabled by an efficient machine-learning moment tensor potential trained to density functional theory data provide quantitative barriers for key atomic-scale growth processes. The wealth of experimental and theoretical data can be consistently combined into a microkinetic model that reveals mixed growth kinetics that, in contrast to the situation at solid Cu, is partly controlled by precursor attachment alongside precursor availability. Key mechanistic aspects that directly point toward the improved graphene quality are a largely suppressed carbon dimer attachment due to the facile incorporation of this precursor species into the liquid surface and a low-barrier ring-opening process that self-heals 5-membered rings resulting from remaining dimer attachments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Rein
- ESRF
− The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Hao Gao
- Fritz-Haber-Institut
der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4−6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hendrik H. Heenen
- Fritz-Haber-Institut
der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4−6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Wissal Sghaier
- University
of Grenoble Alpes and CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Anastasios C. Manikas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Christos Tsakonas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute
of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Physics
Department, Shahid Beheshti University, Evin, Tehran, 1983969411, Iran
| | - Johannes T. Margraf
- Fritz-Haber-Institut
der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4−6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- University
of Bayreuth, Bavarian Center
for Battery Technology (BayBatt), Weiherstraße 26, 95448 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Costas Galiotis
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Gilles Renaud
- University
of Grenoble Alpes and CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Oleg V. Konovalov
- ESRF
− The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute
of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut
der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4−6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- ESRF
− The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Konovalov O, Rein V, Saedi M, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Jankowski M. Tripling of the scattering vector range of X-ray reflectivity on liquid surfaces using a double-crystal deflector. J Appl Crystallogr 2024; 57:258-265. [PMID: 38596733 PMCID: PMC11001415 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576724000657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The maximum range of perpendicular momentum transfer (q z) has been tripled for X-ray scattering from liquid surfaces when using a double-crystal deflector setup to tilt the incident X-ray beam. This is achieved by employing a higher-energy X-ray beam to access Miller indices of reflecting crystal atomic planes that are three times higher than usual. The deviation from the exact Bragg angle condition induced by misalignment between the X-ray beam axis and the main rotation axis of the double-crystal deflector is calculated, and a fast and straightforward procedure to align them is deduced. An experimental method of measuring scattering intensity along the q z direction on liquid surfaces up to q z = 7 Å-1 is presented, with liquid copper serving as a reference system for benchmarking purposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Konovalov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Valentina Rein
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NR, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Physics Department, Shahid Beheshti University, 1983969411 Tehran, Iran
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NR, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Zhang J, Zhai T, Arifurrahman F, Wang Y, Hitt A, He Z, Ai Q, Liu Y, Lin CY, Zhu Y, Tang M, Lou J. Toward Controlled Synthesis of 2D Crystals by CVD: Learning from the Real-Time Crystal Morphology Evolutions. NANO LETTERS 2024; 24:2465-2472. [PMID: 38349857 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c04016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
The rich morphology of 2D materials grown through chemical vapor deposition (CVD), is a distinctive feature. However, understanding the complex growth of 2D crystals under practical CVD conditions remains a challenge due to various intertwined factors. Real-time monitoring is crucial to providing essential data and enabling the use of advanced tools like machine learning for unraveling these complexities. In this study, we present a custom-built miniaturized CVD system capable of observing and recording 2D MoS2 crystal growth in real time. Image processing converts the real-time footage into digital data, and machine learning algorithms (ML) unveil the significant factors influencing growth. The machine learning model successfully predicts CVD growth parameters for synthesizing ultralarge monolayer MoS2 crystals. It also demonstrates the potential to reverse engineer CVD growth parameters by analyzing the as-grown 2D crystal morphology. This interdisciplinary approach can be integrated to enhance our understanding of controlled 2D crystal synthesis through CVD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Tianshu Zhai
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Faizal Arifurrahman
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Yuguo Wang
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Andrew Hitt
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Zelai He
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Qing Ai
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Yifeng Liu
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Chen-Yang Lin
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Yifan Zhu
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Ming Tang
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Jun Lou
- Department of Materials Science and NanoEngineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhu X, Wang H, Wang K, Xie L. Progress on the in situ imaging of growth dynamics of two-dimensional materials. NANOSCALE 2023; 15:11746-11758. [PMID: 37366323 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr01475d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
One key issue to promote the industrialization of two-dimensional (2D) materials is to grow high-quality and large-scale 2D materials. Investigations of the growth mechanism and growth dynamics are of fundamental importance for the growth of 2D material, in which in situ imaging is highly needed. By applying different in situ imaging techniques, details for growth process, including nucleation and morphology evolution, can be obtained. This review summarizes the recent progress on the in situ imaging of 2D material growth, in which the growth rate, kink dynamics, domain coalescence, growth across the substrate steps, single-atom catalysis, and intermediates have been revealed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaokai Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Honggang Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Kangkang Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Liming Xie
- CAS Key Laboratory of Standardization and Measurement for Nanotechnology, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Gao H, Belova V, La Porta F, Cingolani JS, Andersen M, Saedi M, Konovalov OV, Jankowski M, Heenen HH, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Reuter K. Graphene at Liquid Copper Catalysts: Atomic-Scale Agreement of Experimental and First-Principles Adsorption Height. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2204684. [PMID: 36351774 PMCID: PMC9798965 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202204684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Liquid metal catalysts have recently attracted attention for synthesizing high-quality 2D materials facilitated via the catalysts' perfectly smooth surface. However, the microscopic catalytic processes occurring at the surface are still largely unclear because liquid metals escape the accessibility of traditional experimental and computational surface science approaches. Hence, numerous controversies are found regarding different applications, with graphene (Gr) growth on liquid copper (Cu) as a prominent prototype. In this work, novel in situ and in silico techniques are employed to achieve an atomic-level characterization of the graphene adsorption height above liquid Cu, reaching quantitative agreement within 0.1 Å between experiment and theory. The results are obtained via in situ synchrotron X-ray reflectivity (XRR) measurements over wide-range q-vectors and large-scale molecular dynamics simulations based on efficient machine-learning (ML) potentials trained to first-principles density functional theory (DFT) data. The computational insight is demonstrated to be robust against inherent DFT errors and reveals the nature of graphene binding to be highly comparable at liquid Cu and solid Cu(111). Transporting the predictive first-principles quality via ML potentials to the scales required for liquid metal catalysis thus provides a powerful approach to reach microscopic understanding, analogous to the established computational approaches for catalysis at solid surfaces.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Gao
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
| | - Valentina Belova
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Francesco La Porta
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Juan Santiago Cingolani
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research CenterTechnische Universität MünchenLichtenbergstraße 485747GarchingGermany
| | - Mie Andersen
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies & Center for Interstellar CatalysisDepartment of Physics and AstronomyAarhus UniversityAarhus CDK‐8000Denmark
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute of ChemistryLeiden UniversityP.O. Box 9502RA Leiden2300The Netherlands
| | - Oleg V. Konovalov
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Hendrik H. Heenen
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of ChemistryLeiden UniversityP.O. Box 9502RA Leiden2300The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Université Grenoble AlpesCEA, IRIG/MEM/NRSGrenoble38000France
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Konovalov OV, Belova V, La Porta F, Saedi M, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Snigireva I, Snigirev A, Voevodina M, Shen C, Sartori A, Murphy BM, Jankowski M. X-ray reflectivity from curved surfaces as illustrated by a graphene layer on molten copper. JOURNAL OF SYNCHROTRON RADIATION 2022; 29:711-720. [PMID: 35511004 PMCID: PMC9070704 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577522002053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The X-ray reflectivity technique can provide out-of-plane electron-density profiles of surfaces, interfaces, and thin films, with atomic resolution accuracy. While current methodologies require high surface flatness, this becomes challenging for naturally curved surfaces, particularly for liquid metals, due to the very high surface tension. Here, the development of X-ray reflectivity measurements with beam sizes of a few tens of micrometres on highly curved liquid surfaces using a synchrotron diffractometer equipped with a double crystal beam deflector is presented. The proposed and developed method, which uses a standard reflectivity θ-2θ scan, is successfully applied to study in situ the bare surface of molten copper and molten copper covered by a graphene layer grown in situ by chemical vapor deposition. It was found that the roughness of the bare liquid surface of copper at 1400 K is 1.25 ± 0.10 Å, while the graphene layer is separated from the liquid surface by a distance of 1.55 ± 0.08 Å and has a roughness of 1.26 ± 0.09 Å.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oleg V. Konovalov
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Valentina Belova
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Francesco La Porta
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Irina Snigireva
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Anatoly Snigirev
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 14 Nevskogo, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russian Federation
| | - Maria Voevodina
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 14 Nevskogo, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russian Federation
| | - Chen Shen
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andrea Sartori
- Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics, Kiel University, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Bridget M. Murphy
- Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics, Kiel University, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany
- Ruprecht-Haensel Laboratory, Kiel University, Christian-Albrechts-Platz 4, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Even after being in business for at least the last 100 years, research into the field of (heterogeneous) catalysis is still vibrant, both in academia and in industry. One of the reasons for this is that around 90% of all chemicals and materials used in everyday life are produced employing catalysis. In 2020, the global catalyst market size reached $35 billion, and it is still steadily increasing every year. Additionally, catalysts will be the driving force behind the transition toward sustainable energy. However, even after having been investigated for 100 years, we still have not reached the holy grail of developing catalysts from rational design instead of from trial-and-error. There are two main reasons for this, indicated by the two so-called "gaps" between (academic) research and actual catalysis. The first one is the "pressure gap", indicating the 13 orders of magnitude difference in pressure between the ultrahigh vacuum lab conditions and the atmospheric pressures (and higher) of industrial catalysis. The second one is the "materials gap", indicating the difference in complexity between single-crystal model catalysts of academic research and the real catalysts, consisting of metallic nanoparticles on supports, promoters, fillers, and binders. Although over the past decades significant efforts have been made in closing these gaps, many steps still have to be taken. In this Account, I will discuss the steps we have taken at Leiden University to further our fundamental understanding of heterogeneous catalysis at the (near-)atomic scale. I will focus on bridging the pressure gap, though we are also working on closing the materials gap. Over the past years, we developed state-of-the-art equipment that is able to investigate the (near-)atomic-scale structure of the catalyst surface during the chemical reaction using several surface-science-based techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy, atomic force microscopy, optical microscopy, and X-ray-based techniques (surface X-ray diffraction, grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering, and X-ray reflectivity, in collaboration with ESRF). Simultaneously with imaging the surface, we can investigate the catalyst's performance via mass spectrometry, enabling us to link changes in the catalyst structure to its activity, selectivity, or stability. Although we are currently investigating many industrially relevant catalytic systems, I will here focus the discussion on the oxidation of platinum during, for example, CO and NO oxidation, the NO reduction reaction on platinum, and the growth of graphene on liquid (molten) copper. I will show that to be able to obtain the full picture of heterogeneous catalysis, the ability to investigate the catalyst at the (near-)atomic scale during the chemical reaction is a must.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Jankowski M, Saedi M, La Porta F, Manikas AC, Tsakonas C, Cingolani JS, Andersen M, de Voogd M, van Baarle GJC, Reuter K, Galiotis C, Renaud G, Konovalov OV, Groot IMN. Real-Time Multiscale Monitoring and Tailoring of Graphene Growth on Liquid Copper. ACS NANO 2021; 15:9638-9648. [PMID: 34060320 PMCID: PMC8291761 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c10377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of large, defect-free two-dimensional materials (2DMs) such as graphene is a major challenge toward industrial applications. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on liquid metal catalysts (LMCats) is a recently developed process for the fast synthesis of high-quality single crystals of 2DMs. However, up to now, the lack of in situ techniques enabling direct feedback on the growth has limited our understanding of the process dynamics and primarily led to empirical growth recipes. Thus, an in situ multiscale monitoring of the 2DMs structure, coupled with a real-time control of the growth parameters, is necessary for efficient synthesis. Here we report real-time monitoring of graphene growth on liquid copper (at 1370 K under atmospheric pressure CVD conditions) via four complementary in situ methods: synchrotron X-ray diffraction and reflectivity, Raman spectroscopy, and radiation-mode optical microscopy. This has allowed us to control graphene growth parameters such as shape, dispersion, and the hexagonal supra-organization with very high accuracy. Furthermore, the switch from continuous polycrystalline film to the growth of millimeter-sized defect-free single crystals could also be accomplished. The presented results have far-reaching consequences for studying and tailoring 2D material formation processes on LMCats under CVD growth conditions. Finally, the experimental observations are supported by multiscale modeling that has thrown light into the underlying mechanisms of graphene growth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Jankowski
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Francesco La Porta
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Anastasios C. Manikas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Christos Tsakonas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Juan S. Cingolani
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Mie Andersen
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Marc de Voogd
- Leiden Probe
Microscopy (LPM), Kenauweg
21, 2331 BA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Karsten Reuter
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Costas Galiotis
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Oleg V. Konovalov
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Tsakonas C, Dimitropoulos M, Manikas AC, Galiotis C. Growth and in situ characterization of 2D materials by chemical vapour deposition on liquid metal catalysts: a review. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:3346-3373. [PMID: 33555274 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr07330j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
2D materials (2DMs) have now been established as unique and attractive alternatives to replace current technological materials in a number of applications. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD), is undoubtedly the most renowned technique for thin film synthesis and meets all requirements for automated large-scale production of 2DMs. Currently most CVD methods employ solid metal catalysts (SMCat) for the growth of 2DMs however their use has been found to induce structural defects such as wrinkles, fissures, and grain boundaries among others. On the other hand, liquid metal catalysts (LMCat), constitute a possible alternative for the production of defect-free 2DMs albeit with a small temperature penalty. This review is a comprehensive report of past attempts to employ LMCat for the production of 2DMs with emphasis on graphene growth. Special attention is paid to the underlying mechanisms that govern crystal growth and/or grain consolidation and film coverage. Finally, the advent of online metrology which is particularly effective for monitoring the chemical processes under LMCat conditions is also reviewed and certain directions for future development are drawn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christos Tsakonas
- University of Patras, Chemical Engineering Department, 26504 Patras, Greece.
| | | | | | - Costas Galiotis
- University of Patras, Chemical Engineering Department, 26504 Patras, Greece. and Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas (FORTH/ICE-HT), 26504 Patras, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Cingolani JS, Deimel M, Köcher S, Scheurer C, Reuter K, Andersen M. Interface between graphene and liquid Cu from molecular dynamics simulations. J Chem Phys 2020; 153:074702. [PMID: 32828114 DOI: 10.1063/5.0020126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Controllable synthesis of defect-free graphene is crucial for applications since the properties of graphene are highly sensitive to any deviations from the crystalline lattice. We focus here on the emerging use of liquid Cu catalysts, which have high potential for fast and efficient industrial-scale production of high-quality graphene. The interface between graphene and liquid Cu is studied using force field and ab initio molecular dynamics, revealing a complete or partial embedding of finite-sized flakes. By analyzing flakes of different sizes, we find that the size-dependence of the embedding can be rationalized based on the energy cost of embedding vs bending the graphene flake. The embedding itself is driven by the formation of covalent bonds between the under-coordinated edge C atoms and the liquid Cu surface, which is accompanied by a significant charge transfer. In contrast, the central flake atoms are located around or slightly above 3 Å from the liquid Cu surface and exhibit weak van der Waals-bonding and much lower charge transfer. The structural and electronic properties of the embedded state revealed in our work provide the atomic-scale information needed to develop effective models to explain the special growth observed in experiments where various interesting phenomena such as flake self-assembly and rotational alignment, high growth speeds, and low defect densities in the final graphene product have been observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Santiago Cingolani
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Martin Deimel
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Simone Köcher
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Christoph Scheurer
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Mie Andersen
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstr. 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| |
Collapse
|