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Rein V, Gao H, Heenen HH, Sghaier W, Manikas AC, Tsakonas C, Saedi M, Margraf JT, Galiotis C, Renaud G, Konovalov OV, Groot IMN, Reuter K, Jankowski M. Operando Characterization and Molecular Simulations Reveal the Growth Kinetics of Graphene on Liquid Copper During Chemical Vapor Deposition. ACS Nano 2024. [PMID: 38688475 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c02070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, liquid metal catalysts have emerged as a compelling choice for the controllable, large-scale, and high-quality synthesis of two-dimensional materials. At present, there is little mechanistic understanding of the intricate catalytic process, though, of its governing factors or what renders it superior to growth at the corresponding solid catalysts. Here, we report on a combined experimental and computational study of the kinetics of graphene growth during chemical vapor deposition on a liquid copper catalyst. By monitoring the growing graphene flakes in real time using in situ radiation-mode optical microscopy, we explore the growth morphology and kinetics over a wide range of CH4-to-H2 pressure ratios and deposition temperatures. Constant growth rates of the flakes' radius indicate a growth mode limited by precursor attachment, whereas methane-flux-dependent flake shapes point to limited precursor availability. Large-scale free energy simulations enabled by an efficient machine-learning moment tensor potential trained to density functional theory data provide quantitative barriers for key atomic-scale growth processes. The wealth of experimental and theoretical data can be consistently combined into a microkinetic model that reveals mixed growth kinetics that, in contrast to the situation at solid Cu, is partly controlled by precursor attachment alongside precursor availability. Key mechanistic aspects that directly point toward the improved graphene quality are a largely suppressed carbon dimer attachment due to the facile incorporation of this precursor species into the liquid surface and a low-barrier ring-opening process that self-heals 5-membered rings resulting from remaining dimer attachments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Rein
- ESRF - The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Hao Gao
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hendrik H Heenen
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Wissal Sghaier
- University of Grenoble Alpes and CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Anastasios C Manikas
- FORTH/ICE-HT and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Christos Tsakonas
- FORTH/ICE-HT and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Physics Department, Shahid Beheshti University, Evin, Tehran, 1983969411, Iran
| | - Johannes T Margraf
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
- University of Bayreuth, Bavarian Center for Battery Technology (BayBatt), Weiherstraße 26, 95448 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Costas Galiotis
- FORTH/ICE-HT and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Patras, Greece
| | - Gilles Renaud
- University of Grenoble Alpes and CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Oleg V Konovalov
- ESRF - The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Irene M N Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- ESRF - The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
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Konovalov O, Rein V, Saedi M, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Jankowski M. Tripling of the scattering vector range of X-ray reflectivity on liquid surfaces using a double-crystal deflector. J Appl Crystallogr 2024; 57:258-265. [PMID: 38596733 PMCID: PMC11001415 DOI: 10.1107/s1600576724000657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024] Open
Abstract
The maximum range of perpendicular momentum transfer (q z) has been tripled for X-ray scattering from liquid surfaces when using a double-crystal deflector setup to tilt the incident X-ray beam. This is achieved by employing a higher-energy X-ray beam to access Miller indices of reflecting crystal atomic planes that are three times higher than usual. The deviation from the exact Bragg angle condition induced by misalignment between the X-ray beam axis and the main rotation axis of the double-crystal deflector is calculated, and a fast and straightforward procedure to align them is deduced. An experimental method of measuring scattering intensity along the q z direction on liquid surfaces up to q z = 7 Å-1 is presented, with liquid copper serving as a reference system for benchmarking purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Konovalov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - Valentina Rein
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NR, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Physics Department, Shahid Beheshti University, 1983969411 Tehran, Iran
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NR, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility–ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
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Gao H, Belova V, La Porta F, Cingolani JS, Andersen M, Saedi M, Konovalov OV, Jankowski M, Heenen HH, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Reuter K. Graphene at Liquid Copper Catalysts: Atomic-Scale Agreement of Experimental and First-Principles Adsorption Height. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2022; 9:e2204684. [PMID: 36351774 PMCID: PMC9798965 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202204684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Liquid metal catalysts have recently attracted attention for synthesizing high-quality 2D materials facilitated via the catalysts' perfectly smooth surface. However, the microscopic catalytic processes occurring at the surface are still largely unclear because liquid metals escape the accessibility of traditional experimental and computational surface science approaches. Hence, numerous controversies are found regarding different applications, with graphene (Gr) growth on liquid copper (Cu) as a prominent prototype. In this work, novel in situ and in silico techniques are employed to achieve an atomic-level characterization of the graphene adsorption height above liquid Cu, reaching quantitative agreement within 0.1 Å between experiment and theory. The results are obtained via in situ synchrotron X-ray reflectivity (XRR) measurements over wide-range q-vectors and large-scale molecular dynamics simulations based on efficient machine-learning (ML) potentials trained to first-principles density functional theory (DFT) data. The computational insight is demonstrated to be robust against inherent DFT errors and reveals the nature of graphene binding to be highly comparable at liquid Cu and solid Cu(111). Transporting the predictive first-principles quality via ML potentials to the scales required for liquid metal catalysis thus provides a powerful approach to reach microscopic understanding, analogous to the established computational approaches for catalysis at solid surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Gao
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
| | - Valentina Belova
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Francesco La Porta
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Juan Santiago Cingolani
- Chair for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research CenterTechnische Universität MünchenLichtenbergstraße 485747GarchingGermany
| | - Mie Andersen
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies & Center for Interstellar CatalysisDepartment of Physics and AstronomyAarhus UniversityAarhus CDK‐8000Denmark
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute of ChemistryLeiden UniversityP.O. Box 9502RA Leiden2300The Netherlands
| | - Oleg V. Konovalov
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- The European Synchrotron‐ ESRF71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220Grenoble Cedex 938043France
| | - Hendrik H. Heenen
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of ChemistryLeiden UniversityP.O. Box 9502RA Leiden2300The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Université Grenoble AlpesCEA, IRIG/MEM/NRSGrenoble38000France
| | - Karsten Reuter
- Fritz‐Haber‐Institut der Max‐Planck‐GesellschaftFaradayweg 4–614195BerlinGermany
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Konovalov OV, Belova V, La Porta F, Saedi M, Groot IMN, Renaud G, Snigireva I, Snigirev A, Voevodina M, Shen C, Sartori A, Murphy BM, Jankowski M. X-ray reflectivity from curved surfaces as illustrated by a graphene layer on molten copper. J Synchrotron Radiat 2022; 29:711-720. [PMID: 35511004 PMCID: PMC9070704 DOI: 10.1107/s1600577522002053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The X-ray reflectivity technique can provide out-of-plane electron-density profiles of surfaces, interfaces, and thin films, with atomic resolution accuracy. While current methodologies require high surface flatness, this becomes challenging for naturally curved surfaces, particularly for liquid metals, due to the very high surface tension. Here, the development of X-ray reflectivity measurements with beam sizes of a few tens of micrometres on highly curved liquid surfaces using a synchrotron diffractometer equipped with a double crystal beam deflector is presented. The proposed and developed method, which uses a standard reflectivity θ-2θ scan, is successfully applied to study in situ the bare surface of molten copper and molten copper covered by a graphene layer grown in situ by chemical vapor deposition. It was found that the roughness of the bare liquid surface of copper at 1400 K is 1.25 ± 0.10 Å, while the graphene layer is separated from the liquid surface by a distance of 1.55 ± 0.08 Å and has a roughness of 1.26 ± 0.09 Å.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg V. Konovalov
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Valentina Belova
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Francesco La Porta
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, PO Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Irina Snigireva
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Anatoly Snigirev
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 14 Nevskogo, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russian Federation
| | - Maria Voevodina
- Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 14 Nevskogo, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russian Federation
| | - Chen Shen
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Andrea Sartori
- Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics, Kiel University, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany
| | - Bridget M. Murphy
- Institute for Experimental and Applied Physics, Kiel University, Olshausenstrasse 40, 24098 Kiel, Germany
- Ruprecht-Haensel Laboratory, Kiel University, Christian-Albrechts-Platz 4, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- ESRF – The European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
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Jankowski M, Saedi M, La Porta F, Manikas AC, Tsakonas C, Cingolani JS, Andersen M, de Voogd M, van Baarle GJC, Reuter K, Galiotis C, Renaud G, Konovalov OV, Groot IMN. Correction to Real-Time Multiscale Monitoring and Tailoring of Graphene Growth on Liquid Copper. ACS Nano 2021; 15:12455. [PMID: 34240597 PMCID: PMC11027589 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c05447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
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Jankowski M, Saedi M, La Porta F, Manikas AC, Tsakonas C, Cingolani JS, Andersen M, de Voogd M, van Baarle GJC, Reuter K, Galiotis C, Renaud G, Konovalov OV, Groot IMN. Real-Time Multiscale Monitoring and Tailoring of Graphene Growth on Liquid Copper. ACS Nano 2021; 15:9638-9648. [PMID: 34060320 PMCID: PMC8291761 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c10377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of large, defect-free two-dimensional materials (2DMs) such as graphene is a major challenge toward industrial applications. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on liquid metal catalysts (LMCats) is a recently developed process for the fast synthesis of high-quality single crystals of 2DMs. However, up to now, the lack of in situ techniques enabling direct feedback on the growth has limited our understanding of the process dynamics and primarily led to empirical growth recipes. Thus, an in situ multiscale monitoring of the 2DMs structure, coupled with a real-time control of the growth parameters, is necessary for efficient synthesis. Here we report real-time monitoring of graphene growth on liquid copper (at 1370 K under atmospheric pressure CVD conditions) via four complementary in situ methods: synchrotron X-ray diffraction and reflectivity, Raman spectroscopy, and radiation-mode optical microscopy. This has allowed us to control graphene growth parameters such as shape, dispersion, and the hexagonal supra-organization with very high accuracy. Furthermore, the switch from continuous polycrystalline film to the growth of millimeter-sized defect-free single crystals could also be accomplished. The presented results have far-reaching consequences for studying and tailoring 2D material formation processes on LMCats under CVD growth conditions. Finally, the experimental observations are supported by multiscale modeling that has thrown light into the underlying mechanisms of graphene growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Jankowski
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Mehdi Saedi
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Francesco La Porta
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Anastasios C. Manikas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Christos Tsakonas
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Juan S. Cingolani
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Mie Andersen
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Marc de Voogd
- Leiden Probe
Microscopy (LPM), Kenauweg
21, 2331 BA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Karsten Reuter
- Chair
for Theoretical Chemistry and Catalysis Research Center, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Costas Galiotis
- FORTH/ICE-HT
and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras 26504, Greece
| | - Gilles Renaud
- Université
Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG/MEM/NRS, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Oleg V. Konovalov
- ESRF-The
European Synchrotron, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Irene M. N. Groot
- Leiden
Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Saedi M, de Voogd JM, Sjardin A, Manikas A, Galiotis C, Jankowski M, Renaud G, La Porta F, Konovalov O, van Baarle GJC, Groot IMN. Development of a reactor for the in situ monitoring of 2D materials growth on liquid metal catalysts, using synchrotron x-ray scattering, Raman spectroscopy, and optical microscopy. Rev Sci Instrum 2020; 91:013907. [PMID: 32012586 DOI: 10.1063/1.5110656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Liquid metal catalysts (LMCats) (e.g., molten copper) can provide a new mass-production method for two-dimensional materials (2DMs) (e.g., graphene) with significantly higher quality and speed and lower energy and material consumption. To reach such technological excellence, the physicochemical properties of LMCats and the growth mechanisms of 2DMs on LMCats should be investigated. Here, we report the development of a chemical vapor deposition (CVD) reactor which allows the investigation of ongoing chemical reactions on the surface of a molten metal at elevated temperatures and under reactive conditions. The surface of the molten metal is monitored simultaneously using synchrotron x-ray scattering, Raman spectroscopy, and optical microscopy, thereby providing complementary information about the atomic structure and chemical state of the surface. To enable in situ characterization on a molten substrate at high temperatures (e.g., ∼1370 K for copper), the optical and x-ray windows need to be protected from the evaporating LMCat, reaction products, and intense heat. This has been achieved by creating specific gas-flow patterns inside the reactor. The optimized design of the reactor has been achieved using multiphysics COMSOL simulations, which take into account the heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and transport of LMCat vapor inside the reactor. The setup has been successfully tested and is currently used to investigate the CVD growth of graphene on the surface of molten copper under pressures ranging from medium vacuum up to atmospheric pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Saedi
- Catalysis & Surface Chemistry (CASC), Leiden Institute of Chemistry (LIC), Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - J M de Voogd
- Leiden Probe Microscopy (LPM), Kenauweg 21, 2331 BA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A Sjardin
- Leiden Probe Microscopy (LPM), Kenauweg 21, 2331 BA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - A Manikas
- Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Laboratory (NANOTECH), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Rio Achaia, Patras, Greece
| | - C Galiotis
- Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials Laboratory (NANOTECH), Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Rio Achaia, Patras, Greece
| | - M Jankowski
- University Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG-DEPHY-MEM, 17 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - G Renaud
- University Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG-DEPHY-MEM, 17 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - F La Porta
- ID10, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - O Konovalov
- ID10, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 71 Avenue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - G J C van Baarle
- Leiden Probe Microscopy (LPM), Kenauweg 21, 2331 BA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - I M N Groot
- Catalysis & Surface Chemistry (CASC), Leiden Institute of Chemistry (LIC), Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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Korzus G, Saedi M. ID: 247 Cathepsins in Cancer: Sensitive and Convenient Assays to Measure Their Activities in Biological Samples. J Thromb Haemost 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2006.00247.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Lindstrom J, Schoepfer R, Conroy W, Whiting P, Das M, Saedi M, Anand R. The nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene family: structure of nicotinic receptors from muscle and neurons and neuronal alpha-bungarotoxin-binding proteins. Adv Exp Med Biol 1991; 287:255-78. [PMID: 1759611 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4684-5907-4_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Lindstrom
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, San Diego, CA 92138
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