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Caravaca F, Torres P, Díaz G, Roldán A. Selective shifts in the rhizosphere microbiome during the drought season could explain the success of the invader Nicotiana glauca in semiarid ecosystems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 946:174444. [PMID: 38964394 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
The rhizosphere microbiome plays a crucial role in the ability of plants to colonize and thrive in stressful conditions such as drought, which could be decisive for the success of exotic plant invasion in the context of global climate change. The aim of this investigation was to examine differences in the composition, structure, and functional traits of the microbial community of the invader Nicotiana glauca R.C. Graham and native species growing at seven different Mediterranean semiarid locations under two distinct levels of water availability, corresponding to the wet and dry seasons. The results show that the phylum Actinobacteriota was an indicator phylum of the dry season as well as for the community of N. glauca. The dominant indicator bacterial families of the dry season were 67-14 (unclassified family), Pseudonocardiaceae, and Sphingomonadaceae, being relatively more abundant in the invasive rhizosphere. The relative abundances of the indicator fungal families Aspergillaceae (particularly the indicator genus Aspergillus), Glomeraceae, and Claroideoglomeraceae were higher in the invasive rhizosphere. The relative abundance of mycorrhizal fungi was higher in the invasive rhizosphere in the dry season (by about 40 % in comparison to that of native plants), without significant differences between invasive and native plants in the wet season. Bacterial potential functional traits related to energy and precursor metabolites production and also biosynthesis of cell wall, cofactors, vitamins, and amino acids as well as catabolic enzymes involved in the P cycle prevailed in the invasive rhizosphere under drought conditions. This study shows that the pronounced and beneficial shifts in the microbiome assembly and functions in the rhizosphere of N. glauca under conditions of low soil water availability can represent a clear advantage for its establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Caravaca
- CSIC-Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, Department of Soil and Water Conservation, P.O. Box 164, Campus de Espinardo 30100, Murcia, Spain.
| | - P Torres
- Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Department of Applied Biology, Avda. Ferrocarril, s/n. Edf. Laboratorios-03202-Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - G Díaz
- Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Department of Applied Biology, Avda. Ferrocarril, s/n. Edf. Laboratorios-03202-Elche, Alicante, Spain
| | - A Roldán
- CSIC-Centro de Edafología y Biología Aplicada del Segura, Department of Soil and Water Conservation, P.O. Box 164, Campus de Espinardo 30100, Murcia, Spain
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Javaid MM, Mahmood A, Alshaya DS, AlKahtani MDF, Waheed H, Wasaya A, Khan SA, Naqve M, Haider I, Shahid MA, Nadeem MA, Azmat S, Khan BA, Balal RM, Attia KA, Fiaz S. Influence of environmental factors on seed germination and seedling characteristics of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.). Sci Rep 2022; 12:9522. [PMID: 35681016 PMCID: PMC9184647 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-13416-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Information regarding the germination and seedling growth behavior of a potential weed species is an important tool to manage weeds without the use of agricultural chemicals that cause harmful effects on human health and the environment. A series of experiments were directed to investigate the influence of different environmental factors (temperature, pH, NaCl, moisture stress, and seed burial depth) on germination and seedling emergence of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) under controlled conditions. Results suggested that 25 °C is the optimum temperature for maximum germination (95%) and seedling growth of perennial ryegrass, however, a quick decline was observed at 35 °C. Seed germination was unaffected by pH levels ranging from 5 to 10. The 92% seed germination was recorded where no salt stress was applied and germination was reduced by 87% at 250 mMNaCl concentration. Seed germination was unaffected by osmotic potential ranges from 0 to − 0.4 MPa thereafter declined and completely inhibited at − 0.8 or − 1.0 MPa. No seed emerged at the soil surface or a soil depth of 6 or 7 cm and 90% emergence occurred at 1 cmsoil depth. The germination and seedlings parameters like time to initial germination, mean germination time, time taken to 50% germination and germination index, root and shoot length, and fresh and dry weight of root and shoot are significantly affected with the environmental factors. The information obtained in this study will be helpful to develop better management strategies for germination and the emergence of perennial ryegrass in areas where it has the ability to rapidly colonize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Mansoor Javaid
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Athar Mahmood
- Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan.
| | - Dalal S Alshaya
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh, 11671, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Muneera D F AlKahtani
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 84428, Riyadh, 11671, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hasnain Waheed
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Allah Wasaya
- College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bahadur Sub-Campus, Layyah, 31200, Pakistan
| | - Sher Aslam Khan
- Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, The University of Haripur, Haripur, 22620, Pakistan
| | - Maria Naqve
- Department of Botany, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Imran Haider
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Adnan Shahid
- Horticultural Sciences Department, UF/IFAS, North Florida Research and Education Center Quincy 32351, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Muhammad Ather Nadeem
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Saira Azmat
- Agriculture Extension and Adaptive Research, Agriculture Department, Government of Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Bilal Ahmad Khan
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Rashad Mukhtar Balal
- Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Kotb A Attia
- Center of Excellence in Biotechnology Research, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh, 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Sajid Fiaz
- College of Agriculture, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bahadur Sub-Campus, Layyah, 31200, Pakistan.
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Chadha A, Florentine S, Javaid M, Welgama A, Turville C. Influence of elements of climate change on the growth and fecundity of Datura stramonium. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:35859-35869. [PMID: 32710358 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-10251-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the performance of Datura stramonium, an invasive weed of soybean and solanaceous crops, was examined under different elements of climate change. Experiments conducted in CO2 chambers at ambient CO2 (400 ppm) and elevated CO2 (700 ppm) levels under both well-watered and drought conditions exhibited the fertilization effect of elevated CO2. This was, however, limited by drought. Clearly, growth of D. stramonium will be significantly enhanced by enriched atmospheric CO2 concentration under well-watered conditions, producing taller plants with greater biomass and higher seed output. Glasshouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of different soil moisture regimes (100%, 75%, 50% and 25% water-holding capacity (WHC)) on the growth and fecundity of D. stramonium. Plants grown in 75% WHC had the highest plant height (15.24 cm) and shoot diameter (4.25 mm). The lowest leaf area (305.91 mm2), fresh weight (14.48 g) and dry weight (4.45 g) were observed in 25% WHC conditions. The ability of D. stramonium plants to grow and complete their life cycle with high seed output, even under limited water availability, shows the weedy nature of this species which is well adapted to survive future inhospitable climatic conditions. Radiant heat treatment on the plants indicated that temperatures of 120 °C and above for more than 180 s were enough to kill the plants, suggesting that thermal weeding or wildfires will be adequate to act as a circuit breaker on the D. stramonium invasion cycle, thus allowing other control measures to be engaged for greater control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aakansha Chadha
- Centre for Environmental Management, School of Science, Psychology and Sport, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, 3350, Australia
| | - Singarayer Florentine
- Centre for Environmental Management, School of Science, Psychology and Sport, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, 3350, Australia.
| | - Muhammad Javaid
- Department of Agronomy, University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Amali Welgama
- Centre for Environmental Management, School of Science, Psychology and Sport, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, 3350, Australia
| | - Christopher Turville
- School of Science and Engineering, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, 3350, Australia
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Ma H, Erickson TE, Merritt DJ. Seed dormancy regulates germination response to smoke and temperature in a rhizomatous evergreen perennial. AOB PLANTS 2018; 10:ply042. [PMID: 30057736 PMCID: PMC6057524 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/ply042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 07/04/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Seed dormancy status regulates the response of seeds to environmental cues that can trigger germination. Anigozanthos flavidus (Haemodoraceae) produces seeds with morphophysiological dormancy (MPD) that are known to germinate in response to smoke, but embryo growth dynamics and germination traits in response to temperatures and after-ripening have not been well characterized. Seeds of A. flavidus, after-ripened for 28 months at 15 °C/15 % relative humidity, were incubated on water agar, water agar containing 1 μM karrikinolide (KAR1) or 50 μM glyceronitrile at 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 20/10 and 25/15 °C for 28 days. After incubation at 5, 10 and 25 °C for 28 days, seeds were transferred to 15 °C for another 28 days. Embryo growth dynamics were tested at 5, 10, 15 and 25 °C. Results demonstrated that fresh seeds of A. flavidus had MPD and the physiological dormancy (PD) component could be broken by either glyceronitrile or dry after-ripening. After-ripened seeds germinated to ≥80 % at 15-20 °C while no additional benefit of germination was observed in the presence of the KAR1 or glyceronitrile. Embryo length significantly increased at 10 °C, and only slightly increased at 5 °C, while growth did not occur at 25 °C. When un-germinated seeds were moved from 5-10 °C to 15 °C for a further 28 days, germination increased from 0 to >80 % in significantly less time indicating that cold stratification may play a key role in the germination process during winter and early spring in A. flavidus. The lower germination (<50 %) of seeds moved from 25 to 15 °C was produced by the induction of secondary dormancy. Induction of secondary dormancy in seeds exposed to warm stratification, a first report for Anigozanthos species, suggests that cycling of PD may be an important mechanism of controlling germination timing in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyuan Ma
- Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shengbei Street, Changchun, Jilin, China
| | - Todd E Erickson
- Kings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Fraser Avenue, Kings Park, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - David J Merritt
- Kings Park Science, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions, Fraser Avenue, Kings Park, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia, Australia
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Humphries T, Chauhan BS, Florentine SK. Environmental factors effecting the germination and seedling emergence of two populations of an aggressive agricultural weed; Nassella trichotoma. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199491. [PMID: 29975730 PMCID: PMC6033418 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Hack. ex Arechav. (Serrated tussock) is an aggressive globally significant weed to agricultural and natural ecosystems. Herbicide resistant populations of this C3 perennial weed have emerged, increasing the need for effective wide-scale cultural control strategies. A thorough seed ecology study on two spatially distinct populations of N. trichotoma was conducted on this weed to identify differences in important environmental factors (drought, salinity, alternating temperature, photoperiod, burial depth, soil pH, artificial seed aging, and radiant heat) which influence seed dormancy. Seeds were collected from two spatially distinct populations; Gnarwarre (38 O 9' 8.892'' S, 144 O 7' 38.784'' E) and Ingliston (37O 40' 4.44'' S, 144 O 18' 39.24'' E) in December 2016 and February 2017, respectively. Twenty sterilized seeds were placed into Petri dishes lined with a single Whatman® No. 10 filter paper dampened with the relevant treatments solution and then incubated under the identified optimal alternating temperature and photoperiod regime of 25°C/15°C (light/dark, 12h/12h). For the burial depth treatment, 20 seeds were placed into plastic containers (10cm in diameter and 6cm in depth) and buried to the relevant depth in sterilized soil. All trials were monitored for 30 days and germination was indicated by 5mm exposure of the radicle and emergence was indicated by the exposure of the cotyledon. Each treatment had three replicates for each population, and each treatment was repeated to give a total of six replicates per treatment, per population. Nassella trichotoma was identified to be non-photoblastic, with germination (%) being similar under alternating light and dark and complete darkness conditions. With an increase of osmotic potential and salinity, a significant decline in germination was observed. There was no effect of pH on germination. Exposure to a radiant heat of 120°C for 9 minutes resulted in the lowest germination in the Ingliston population (33%) and the Gnarwarre population (60%). In the burial depth treatment, the Ingliston population and the Gnarwarre population had highest emergence of 75% and 80%, respectively at a depth of 1cm. Variation between the two populations was observed for the burial depth treatments; Gnarwarre had greater emergence than Ingliston from the 4cm burial depth, while Ingliston had greater emergence at the soil surface than Gnarwarre. The Gnarwarre population had greater overall germination than Ingliston, which could be attributed to the greater seed mass (0.86mg compared to 0.76mg, respectively). This study identifies that spatial variations in N. trichotoma's seed ecology are present between spatially distinct populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talia Humphries
- Centre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bhagirath S. Chauhan
- Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
| | - Singarayer K. Florentine
- Centre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University Australia, Mount Helen, Victoria, Australia
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Javaid MM, Florentine S, Ali HH, Weller S. Effect of environmental factors on the germination and emergence of Salvia verbenaca L. cultivars (verbenaca and vernalis): An invasive species in semi-arid and arid rangeland regions. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194319. [PMID: 29566039 PMCID: PMC5863982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Salvia verbenaca (wild sage) is a commonly cultivated herbal medicine plant, which is native to the Mediterranean climate regions of Europe, Africa, Asia and the Middle East. However, it has become an invasive species in semi-arid and arid regions of southern Australia. Two varieties are present in this region, var. verbenaca and var. vernalis, each of which can be distinguished by differences in morphology and flowering period. Following trials to determine the optimum temperate regime for germination and response to light and dark, seeds of both varieties were tested for their response to variations in pH, moisture stress, salinity, and burial depth. The temperature and light trial was carried out using three different temperature regimes; 30/20°C, 25/15°C and 20/12°C, and two light regimes; 12 hours light/12 hours dark and 24 hours dark, with var. vernalis responding to relatively higher temperatures than var. verbenaca. The germination rate of neither species was significantly inhibited by complete darkness when compared to rates under periodic light exposure. Both varieties germinated at near optimum rates strongly to very strongly in all pH buffer solutions, from pH 5 to pH 10, but they responded most strongly at neutral pH. Var. vernalis showed slightly more tolerance to reduced moisture availability, moderate to strong salinity, and burial depth, compared to var. verbenaca. However, even a fairly shallow burial depth of 2 cm completely inhibited germination of both varieties. Thus, in circumstances where both varieties are present in a soil seedbank, var. vernalis could be expected to establish in more challenging conditions, where moisture is limited and salinity is ‘moderate to high’, implying that it is a more serious threat for invasive weed in conditions where crop plants are already challenged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Mansoor Javaid
- Department of Agronomy, University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
- Centre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University Australia, Mt Helen, Ballarat, Vic, Australia
| | - Singarayer Florentine
- Centre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University Australia, Mt Helen, Ballarat, Vic, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Hafiz Haider Ali
- Department of Agronomy, University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Sandra Weller
- Centre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Science and Technology, Federation University Australia, Mt Helen, Ballarat, Vic, Australia
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Javaid MM, Florentine SK, Ali HH, Chauhan BS. Environmental factors affecting the germination and emergence of white horehound (Marrubium vulgare L.): a weed of arid-zone areas. RANGELAND JOURNAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1071/rj17121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
White horehound (Marrubium vulgare L.), is a troublesome weed of arid zones, particularly in cropping and grazing areas. Understanding the seed ecology of white horehound is relevant to its management. The present study investigated the effects of temperature, light, osmotic potential, salinity, pH, and seeding depth on seed germination and seedling emergence of white horehound. Seeds germinated over a wide range of temperatures, with highest germination (100%) occurring at 25/20°C in either 12-h alternating light/dark or complete darkness. Germination decreased from 92% to 10% as the osmotic potential decreased from 0 to minus 0.6 MPa and germination was completely inhibited at minus 0.8 MPa. Increasing concentration of sodium chloride (salinity) from 50 to 150 mM reduced germination from 68% to 11% but was completely inhibited at 200 mM. Germination was not limited by variation of pH in solutions of pH 5 to pH 10. Maximum germination (99%) occurred at pH 7, but slightly decreased (90%) in acidic or alkaline media. Surface located seeds were highly germinable (87%) where seedling emergence significantly declined as seeding depth increased from 0.5 to 3 cm. Nil seedling emergence was occurred at 4 cm burial depth. Light significantly affected germination, time to 50% germination, mean germination time and germination index. Increasing osmotic and salinity stress both significantly increased the time to start germination, time to 50% germination, mean germination time, but decreased germination index. Burial depth adversely affected seedling emergence with surface located seedlings emerging earlier (4.2 days) compared with 20 days for seeds buried at 3 cm. Results suggest that effective management of white horehound should consider targeting surface located seeds in combination with tools that induce minimal soil disturbance, particularly in relatively non-saline environments.
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Humphries T, Graz FF, Florentine SK. Factors effecting the germination and emergence of a rangeland weed; European heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum L.). RANGELAND JOURNAL 2018. [DOI: 10.1071/rj18048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
European heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum L.) is an important weed in semiarid and arid Australia, due to its toxicity to livestock and its ability to out-compete crops for water and soil nutrients. It is an ephemeral species; populations appear in high densities when conditions are favourable, but seeds remain dormant in the soil seedbank for extended periods of time. This study aimed to identify environmental factors that promoted the germination of this weed and factors that de-vitalise seeds. Seeds were collected from the Australian semiarid zone, at Nanya Research Station, New South Wales. The effects on seed germination and seedling emergence of H. europaeum of alternating temperature, photoperiod, drought, salinity, pH range, heat shock combined with smoke exposure, and burial depth were investigated. The highest germination rate was observed under the highest temperature regime, 30/20°C, under a photoperiod of 12h light and 12h dark. The weed germinated under moderate osmotic stress, but the highest germination occurred in the control treatment (no osmotic stress). The effect of salinity and pH on percentage germination was not significant. The effect of the heat shock and smoke treatment significantly reduced seed germination, with germination inhibited when seeds were exposed to 100°C for 3min. Burial depth had a significant effect on seedling emergence, with a burial depth of 0.5cm reducing the germination by ~20%. It is recommended that further research into using fire and tillage interventions for H. europaeum be explored, as these may be used to reduce the viable seedbank of this weed, allowing long-term control to be achieved.
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Gosney K, Florentine SK. Environmental factors associated with the foliage cover of invasive fairy grass (Lachnagrostis filiformis) in Victoria, Australia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:1350-1358. [PMID: 29090432 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0490-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Fairy grass (Lachnagrostis filiformis) is an Australian native grass that has recently become a major concern for rural communities. Its dried inflorescences are blown by the wind and build up against fences and buildings, becoming a severe fire hazard. Understanding the ecology of fairy grass and its impacts on rural communities is relevant to its management. Four dry lake beds in Western Victoria were selected to determine if environmental factors, such as lake, location, direction, altitude and road type and the covariates of pH, soil salinity, soil moisture and distance to nearest road, are related to the presence of fairy grass. The 'lake' factor was the only environmental parameter that was significantly associated with the presence of this weed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Gosney
- Center for Environmental Management Faculty of Science and Information Technology, Federation University Australia, PO Box 663, Ballarat, VIC, 3353, Australia
| | - Singarayer K Florentine
- Center for Environmental Management Faculty of Science and Information Technology, Federation University Australia, PO Box 663, Ballarat, VIC, 3353, Australia.
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