1
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Carlson NJ, Agrawal AA. A nutrition-defence trade-off drives diet choice in a toxic plant generalist. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230987. [PMID: 37554038 PMCID: PMC10410223 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant toxicity shapes the dietary choices of herbivores. Especially when herbivores sequester plant toxins, they may experience a trade-off between gaining protection from natural enemies and avoiding toxicity. The availability of toxins for sequestration may additionally trade off with the nutritional quality of a potential food source for sequestering herbivores. We hypothesized that diet mixing might allow a sequestering herbivore to balance nutrition and defence (via sequestration of plant toxins). Accordingly, here we address diet mixing and sequestration of large milkweed bugs (Oncopeltus fasciatus) when they have differential access to toxins (cardenolides) in their diet. In the absence of toxins from a preferred food (milkweed seeds), large milkweed bugs fed on nutritionally adequate non-toxic seeds, but supplemented their diet by feeding on nutritionally poor, but cardenolide-rich milkweed leaf and stem tissues. This dietary shift corresponded to reduced insect growth but facilitated sequestration of defensive toxins. Plant production of cardenolides was also substantially induced by bug feeding on leaf and stem tissues, perhaps benefitting this cardenolide-resistant herbivore. Thus, sequestration appears to drive diet mixing in this toxic plant generalist, even at the cost of feeding on nutritionally poor plant tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel J. Carlson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, 215 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Anurag A. Agrawal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, 215 Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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2
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Petschenka G, Halitschke R, Züst T, Roth A, Stiehler S, Tenbusch L, Hartwig C, Gámez JFM, Trusch R, Deckert J, Chalušová K, Vilcinskas A, Exnerová A. Sequestration of defenses against predators drives specialized host plant associations in preadapted milkweed bugs (Heteroptera: Lygaeinae). Am Nat 2022; 199:E211-E228. [DOI: 10.1086/719196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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3
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Beran F, Petschenka G. Sequestration of Plant Defense Compounds by Insects: From Mechanisms to Insect-Plant Coevolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 67:163-180. [PMID: 34995091 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-062821-062319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plant defense compounds play a key role in the evolution of insect-plant associations by selecting for behavioral, morphological, and physiological insect adaptations. Sequestration, the ability of herbivorous insects to accumulate plant defense compounds to gain a fitness advantage, represents a complex syndrome of adaptations that has evolved in all major lineages of herbivorous insects and involves various classes of plant defense compounds. In this article, we review progress in understanding how insects selectively accumulate plant defense metabolites and how the evolution of specific resistance mechanisms to these defense compounds enables sequestration. These mechanistic considerations are further integrated into the concept of insect-plant coevolution. Comparative genome and transcriptome analyses, combined with approaches based on analytical chemistry that are centered in phylogenetic frameworks, will help to reveal adaptations underlying the sequestration syndrome, which is essential to understanding the influence of sequestration on insect-plant coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Beran
- Research Group Sequestration and Detoxification in Insects, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena 07745, Germany;
| | - Georg Petschenka
- Department of Applied Entomology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart 70599, Germany;
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4
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Gil‐Tapetado D, Durán‐Montes P, García‐París M, López‐Estrada EK, Sánchez‐Vialas A, Jiménez‐Ruiz Y, Gómez JF, Nieves‐Aldrey JL. Host specialization is ancestral in
Torymus
(Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) cynipid gall parasitoids. ZOOL SCR 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/zsc.12515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Gil‐Tapetado
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (CSIC) Madrid Spain
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Departamento de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid Spain
| | - Patricia Durán‐Montes
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Departamento de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid Spain
| | | | | | | | | | - Jose F. Gómez
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas Departamento de Biodiversidad, Ecología y Evolución Universidad Complutense de Madrid Madrid Spain
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5
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Kikuchi DW, Herberstein ME, Barfield M, Holt RD, Mappes J. Why aren't warning signals everywhere? On the prevalence of aposematism and mimicry in communities. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2446-2460. [PMID: 34128583 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Warning signals are a striking example of natural selection present in almost every ecological community - from Nordic meadows to tropical rainforests, defended prey species and their mimics ward off potential predators before they attack. Yet despite the wide distribution of warning signals, they are relatively scarce as a proportion of the total prey available, and more so in some biomes than others. Classically, warning signals are thought to be governed by positive density-dependent selection, i.e. they succeed better when they are more common. Therefore, after surmounting this initial barrier to their evolution, it is puzzling that they remain uncommon on the scale of the community. Here, we explore factors likely to determine the prevalence of warning signals in prey assemblages. These factors include the nature of prey defences and any constraints upon them, the behavioural interactions of predators with different prey defences, the numerical responses of predators governed by movement and reproduction, the diversity and abundance of undefended alternative prey and Batesian mimics in the community, and variability in other ecological circumstances. We also discuss the macroevolution of warning signals. Our review finds that we have a basic understanding of how many species in some taxonomic groups have warning signals, but very little information on the interrelationships among population abundances across prey communities, the diversity of signal phenotypes, and prey defences. We also have detailed knowledge of how a few generalist predator species forage in artificial laboratory environments, but we know much less about how predators forage in complex natural communities with variable prey defences. We describe how empirical work to address each of these knowledge gaps can test specific hypotheses for why warning signals exhibit their particular patterns of distribution. This will help us to understand how behavioural interactions shape ecological communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Konsequez 45, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, 2109, Australia
| | - Michael Barfield
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8525, U.S.A
| | - Robert D Holt
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8525, U.S.A
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FI-40014, Finland
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6
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Evolution of protective symbiosis in palaemonid shrimps (Decapoda: Caridea) with emphases on host spectrum and morphological adaptations. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2021; 162:107201. [PMID: 33984469 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Palaemonidae is the most speciose caridean shrimp family, with its huge biodiversity partially generated via symbiosis with various marine invertebrates. Previous studies have provided insights into the evolution of protective symbiosis in this family with evidence for frequent inter-phyla host switches, but the comprehensiveness of evolutionary pathways is hampered by the resolution of the previous phylogenetic trees as well as the taxon coverage. Furthermore, several critical issues related to the evolution of a symbiotic lifestyle, including the change in host spectrum and corresponding morphological adaptations, remain largely unresolved. We therefore performed a much extended phylogenetic comparative study on Palaemonidae, rooted in a comprehensive phylogeny reconstructed by a supermatrix-supertree approach based on a total of three mitochondrial and five nuclear markers. Ancestral state reconstruction of host associations revealed at least three independent evolutions into symbiosis, with potentially a drive to seek protection fuelling incipient symbiosis. Yet, most of the observed symbiotic species diversity was radiated from a single cnidarian associate. The evolution of mandibles and ambulatory dactyli suggests a general lack of correlation with host affiliation (except sponge endosymbionts), implying limited morphological adaptations following host switching, despite being putatively a major adaptive consequence of symbiosis. Our analyses of host spectrum, in terms of basic and taxonomic specificity, revealed no apparent phylogenetic signal but instead resolved a dynamic pattern attributable to frequent host switching. Uncoupling between host spectrum and the degree of morphological specialisation is the norm in palaemonids, suggesting that morphological characters are not fully in tune with host spectrum, in addition to host affiliation. This study demonstrates the complexity in the evolution of symbiosis, pointing to the presence of cryptic adaptations determining host spectrum and governing host switch diversification, and provides a clear direction for the evolutionary study of symbiosis in other marine symbiotic groups involving host switching.
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7
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de Castro ÉCP, Musgrove J, Bak S, McMillan WO, Jiggins CD. Phenotypic plasticity in chemical defence of butterflies allows usage of diverse host plants. Biol Lett 2021; 17:20200863. [PMID: 33784874 PMCID: PMC8086984 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2020.0863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Host plant specialization is a major force driving ecological niche partitioning and diversification in insect herbivores. The cyanogenic defences of Passiflora plants keep most herbivores at bay, but not the larvae of Heliconius butterflies, which can both sequester and biosynthesize cyanogenic compounds. Here, we demonstrate that both Heliconius cydno chioneus and H. melpomene rosina have remarkable plasticity in their chemical defences. When feeding on Passiflora species with cyanogenic compounds that they can readily sequester, both species downregulate the biosynthesis of these compounds. By contrast, when fed on Passiflora plants that do not contain cyanogenic glucosides that can be sequestered, both species increase biosynthesis. This biochemical plasticity comes at a fitness cost for the more specialist H. m. rosina, as adult size and weight for this species negatively correlate with biosynthesis levels, but not for the more generalist H. c. chioneus. By contrast, H. m rosina has increased performance when sequestration is possible on its specialized host plant. In summary, phenotypic plasticity in biochemical responses to different host plants offers these butterflies the ability to widen their range of potential hosts within the Passiflora genus, while maintaining their chemical defences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Søren Bak
- Plant Biochemistry, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen
| | | | - Chris D. Jiggins
- Butterfly Genetics Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, UK
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8
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Jones TKL, Medina RF. Corn Stunt Disease: An Ideal Insect-Microbial-Plant Pathosystem for Comprehensive Studies of Vector-Borne Plant Diseases of Corn. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9060747. [PMID: 32545891 PMCID: PMC7356856 DOI: 10.3390/plants9060747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Over 700 plant diseases identified as vector-borne negatively impact plant health and food security globally. The pest control of vector-borne diseases in agricultural settings is in urgent need of more effective tools. Ongoing research in genetics, molecular biology, physiology, and vector behavior has begun to unravel new insights into the transmission of phytopathogens by their insect vectors. However, the intricate mechanisms involved in phytopathogen transmission for certain pathosystems warrant further investigation. In this review, we propose the corn stunt pathosystem (Zea mays-Spiroplasma kunkelii-Dalbulus maidis) as an ideal model for dissecting the molecular determinants and mechanisms underpinning the persistent transmission of a mollicute by its specialist insect vector to an economically important monocotyledonous crop. Corn stunt is the most important disease of corn in the Americas and the Caribbean, where it causes the severe stunting of corn plants and can result in up to 100% yield loss. A comprehensive study of the corn stunt disease system will pave the way for the discovery of novel molecular targets for genetic pest control targeting either the insect vector or the phytopathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara-kay L. Jones
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, TAMU 2475, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA;
- Texas A&M AgriLife Research—Weslaco, 2415 E. Business 83, Weslaco, TX 78596-8344, USA
| | - Raul F. Medina
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, TAMU 2475, College Station, TX 77843-2475, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-979-845-4775
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9
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Wang Y, Huang X, Chang BH, Zhang Z. Growth Performance and Enzymatic Response of the Grasshopper, Calliptamus abbreviatus (Orthoptera: Acrididae), to Six Plant-Derived Compounds. JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2020; 20:5851654. [PMID: 32501501 PMCID: PMC7273521 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Plant-derived compounds are sources of biopesticides for the control of insect pests. We compared the growth performance and enzymatic response of the grasshopper Calliptamus abbreviatus Ikonn to six plant-derived compounds (rutin, quercetin, nicotine, matrine, azadirachtin, and rotenone) in laboratory and field trials. When exposed to the six compounds, C. abbreviatus had significantly reduced growth and survival. All the compounds significantly induced an elevated level of reactive oxygen species, indicating oxidative damage. The activity of detoxifying enzymes, including cytochrome P450s, carboxylesterase, glutathione-S-transferase, and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, and the antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidase, all significantly increased after exposure to the six compounds. These data suggest that the six plant-derived compounds had negative effects on C. abbreviatus. Of the six compounds, matrine, azadirachtin, and rotenone were more toxic to C. abbreviatus, followed by nicotine, quercetin, and rutin. These results show the potential of these compounds as botanical pesticides, which can be applied for the biological control of the grasshopper C. abbreviatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueyue Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water and Soil Conservation and Environmental Protection, College of Resources and Environment, Linyi University, Linyi, P.R. China
| | - Xunbing Huang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water and Soil Conservation and Environmental Protection, College of Resources and Environment, Linyi University, Linyi, P.R. China
| | - Babar Hussain Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, P.R. China
- Department of Entomology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tando Jam, Pakistan
| | - Zehua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Beijing, P.R. China
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10
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Odell EH, Stork NE, Kitching RL. Lianas as a food resource for herbivorous insects: a comparison with trees. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 94:1416-1429. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Erica H. Odell
- Environmental Futures Research Institute and School of Environment and ScienceGriffith University Nathan Queensland Australia
| | - Nigel E. Stork
- Environmental Futures Research Institute and School of Environment and ScienceGriffith University Nathan Queensland Australia
| | - Roger L. Kitching
- Environmental Futures Research Institute and School of Environment and ScienceGriffith University Nathan Queensland Australia
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11
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Jones PL, Petschenka G, Flacht L, Agrawal AA. Cardenolide Intake, Sequestration, and Excretion by the Monarch Butterfly along Gradients of Plant Toxicity and Larval Ontogeny. J Chem Ecol 2019; 45:264-277. [PMID: 30793231 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-019-01055-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus, migrate long distances over which they encounter host plants that vary broadly in toxic cardenolides. Remarkably little is understood about the mechanisms of sequestration in Lepidoptera that lay eggs on host plants ranging in such toxins. Using closely-related milkweed host plants that differ more than ten-fold in cardenolide concentrations, we mechanistically address the intake, sequestration, and excretion of cardenolides by monarchs. We show that on high cardenolide plant species, adult butterflies saturate in cardenolides, resulting in lower concentrations than in leaves, while on low cardenolide plants, butterflies concentrate toxins. Butterflies appear to focus their sequestration on particular compounds, as the diversity of cardenolides is highest in plant leaves, lower in frass, and least in adult butterflies. Among the variety of cardenolides produced by the plant, sequestered compounds may be less toxic to the butterflies themselves, as they are more polar on average than those in leaves. In accordance with this, results from an in vitro assay based on inhibition of Na+/K+ ATPase (the physiological target of cardenolides) showed that on two milkweed species, including the high cardenolide A. perennis, extracts from butterflies have lower inhibitory effects than leaves when standardized by cardenolide concentration, indicating selective sequestration of less toxic compounds from these host plants. To understand how ontogeny shapes sequestration, we examined cardenolide concentrations in caterpillar body tissues and hemolymph over the course of development. Caterpillars sequestered higher concentrations of cardenolides as early instars than as late instars, but within the fifth instar, concentration increased with body mass. Although it appears that large amounts of sequestration occurs in early instars, a host switching experiment revealed that caterpillars can compensate for feeding on low cardenolide host plants with substantial sequestration in the fifth instar. We highlight commonalities and striking differences in the mechanisms of sequestration depending on host plant chemistry and developmental stage, which have important implications for monarch defense.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Georg Petschenka
- Institute for Insect Biotechnology, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Lara Flacht
- Department for Structural Infection Biology, Centre for Structural Systems Biology, Hamburg, Germany & Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anurag A Agrawal
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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12
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Dahlhoff EP, Dahlhoff VC, Grainger CA, Zavala NA, Otepola‐Bello D, Sargent BA, Roberts KT, Heidl SJ, Smiley JT, Rank NE. Getting chased up the mountain: High elevation may limit performance and fitness characters in a montane insect. Funct Ecol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth P. Dahlhoff
- Department of Biology Santa Clara University Santa Clara California
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
| | - Victoria C. Dahlhoff
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
- Department of Biology Sonoma State University Rohnert Park California
| | - Corrine A. Grainger
- Department of Biology Santa Clara University Santa Clara California
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
| | - Nicolas A. Zavala
- Department of Biology Santa Clara University Santa Clara California
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
| | | | - Brynn A. Sargent
- Department of Biology Santa Clara University Santa Clara California
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
| | - Kevin T. Roberts
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
- Department of Biology Sonoma State University Rohnert Park California
| | - Sarah J. Heidl
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
- Department of Biology Sonoma State University Rohnert Park California
| | - John T. Smiley
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
| | - Nathan E. Rank
- White Mountain Research Center University of California Bishop California
- Department of Biology Sonoma State University Rohnert Park California
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13
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Larose C, Rasmann S, Schwander T. Evolutionary dynamics of specialisation in herbivorous stick insects. Ecol Lett 2018; 22:354-364. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.13197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Larose
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Sergio Rasmann
- Institute of Biology; University of Neuchatel; Rue Emile-Argand 11 CH-2000 Neuchâtel Switzerland
| | - Tanja Schwander
- Department of Ecology and Evolution; University of Lausanne; Lausanne Switzerland
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14
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Boevé JL, Nyman T, Shinohara A, Schmidt S. Endogenous toxins and the coupling of gregariousness to conspicuousness in Argidae and Pergidae sawflies. Sci Rep 2018; 8:17636. [PMID: 30518939 PMCID: PMC6281571 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35925-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytophagous insects tend to be either cryptic and solitary, or brightly colored and gregarious, as a defense against vertebrate predators. Here, we tested whether potent defensive chemicals produced de novo by larvae of Argidae and Pergidae sawflies have influenced the evolutionary relationship between larval appearance and levels of gregariousness. Phylogeny-based correlation analyses indicated only a weak trend for solitary species to be cryptic, and for gregarious ones to be conspicuous. Numerous Argidae were cryptic-solitary or conspicuous-gregarious, whereas most Pergidae were conspicuous-gregarious. Both families also included not truly gregarious but aggregated species, i.e. with individuals more evenly distributed on the host plant. By considering two specific morphological traits, predominant body coloration and contrasting spots on body, each one was (weakly) associated with appearance but none with gregariousness, which reflects the functional relevance of appearance as a whole. Furthermore, Argidae can display alternate appearances during successive larval instars. Finally, an independent contrasts test showed no obvious correlation between two major toxic peptides. Our results point towards diversely combined patterns of linked ecological traits in these insects. By assuming that warning coloration is more warranted against vertebrate than invertebrate predators, we suggest that the occurrence itself of toxins allowed this diversity via differing predator guilds and environmental factors, to which these insects were confronted during evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- OD Taxonomy and Phylogeny, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Tommi Nyman
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 111, FI-80101, Joensuu, Finland
- Department of Ecosystems in the Barents Region, Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research, Svanhovd Research Station, NO-9925, Svanvik, Norway
| | - Akihiko Shinohara
- Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, 4-1-1 Amakubo, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki, 305-0005, Japan
| | - Stefan Schmidt
- SNSB - Zoologische Staatssammlung München, Münchhausenstr. 21, 81247, Munich, Germany
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15
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Wang D, Pentzold S, Kunert M, Groth M, Brandt W, Pasteels JM, Boland W, Burse A. A subset of chemosensory genes differs between two populations of a specialized leaf beetle after host plant shift. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:8055-8075. [PMID: 30250684 PMCID: PMC6145003 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to its fundamental role in shaping host selection behavior, we have analyzed the chemosensory repertoire of Chrysomela lapponica. This specialized leaf beetle evolved distinct populations which shifted from the ancestral host plant, willow (Salix sp., Salicaceae), to birch (Betula rotundifolia, Betulaceae). We identified 114 chemosensory candidate genes in adult C. lapponica: 41 olfactory receptors (ORs), eight gustatory receptors, 17 ionotropic receptors, four sensory neuron membrane proteins, 32 odorant binding proteins (OBPs), and 12 chemosensory proteins (CSP) by RNA-seq. Differential expression analyses in the antennae revealed significant upregulation of one minus-C OBP (Clap OBP27) and one CSP (Clap CSP12) in the willow feeders. In contrast, one OR (Clap OR17), four minus-C OBPs (Clap OBP02, 07, 13, 20), and one plus-C OBP (Clap OBP32) were significantly upregulated in birch feeders. The differential expression pattern in the legs was more complex. To narrow down putative ligands acting as cues for host discrimination, the relative abundance and diversity of volatiles of the two host plant species were analyzed. In addition to salicylaldehyde (willow-specific), both plant species differed mainly in their emission rate of terpenoids such as (E,E)-α-farnesene (high in willow) or 4,8-dimethylnona-1,3,7-triene (high in birch). Qualitatively, the volatiles were similar between willow and birch leaves constituting an "olfactory bridge" for the beetles. Subsequent structural modeling of the three most differentially expressed OBPs and docking studies using 22 host volatiles indicated that ligands bind with varying affinity. We suggest that the evolution of particularly minus-C OBPs and ORs in C. lapponica facilitated its host plant shift via chemosensation of the phytochemicals from birch as novel host plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Wang
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | - Stefan Pentzold
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | - Maritta Kunert
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | - Marco Groth
- Leibniz Institute on Aging – Fritz Lipmann InstituteJenaGermany
| | | | | | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
| | - Antje Burse
- Department of Bioorganic ChemistryMax Planck Institute for Chemical EcologyJenaGermany
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16
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Zvereva EL, Doktorovová L, Hotová Svádová K, Zverev V, Štys P, Adamová-Ježová D, Kozlov MV, Exnerová A. Defence strategies of Chrysomela lapponica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) larvae: relative efficacy of secreted and stored defences against insect and avian predators. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vitali Zverev
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Pavel Štys
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | | | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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17
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Ren J, Gunten ND, Konstantinov AS, Vencl FV, Ge S, Hu DL. Chewing Holes for Camouflage. Zoolog Sci 2018; 35:199-207. [PMID: 29882497 DOI: 10.2108/zs170136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Camouflaged objects are harder to detect if the background itself is more heterogeneous, and search becomes increasingly inefficient when the scene contains multiple items resembling the target. Some adult leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) with highly specialized habits make holes on host plant leaves while feeding. We propose that leaf beetles camouflage themselves with their feeding holes. The presence of holes makes predators' visual search harder, thus giving beetles more time to escape from the leaf surface either by jumping (Galerucinae: Alticini) or rolling (rest of Chrysomelidae). Based on behavioral observations and analysis of 25 photographs of feeding leaf beetles (15 species), we demonstrate that adult leaf beetles camouflage themselves by creating holes of uniform size, approximately half of the beetle body size. Observation of the feeding behavior and anatomy of a typical hole-feeding beetle (Altica cirsicola) showed that the foregut volume and head-prothorax mobility of beetles are the two major factors that constrain the hole size. A computer-simulated visual search test showed that the greater the number of holes, and the more each hole approached beetle body size, the longer it took humans (as models) to locate a beetle on a leaf. This study reports a newly discovered kind of camouflage, hole-feeding camouflage, in leaf beetles, which makes visual detection or recognition more difficult by changing the environmental background. This type of camouflage may open up a range of new possibilities for studies in animal cognition analysis and evolution of anti-predation defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ren
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Natasha de Gunten
- 2 Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Alexander S Konstantinov
- 3 Systematic Entomology Laboratory, ARS, USDA, c/o Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC 20013, USA
| | - Fredric V Vencl
- 4 Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA
| | - Siqin Ge
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - David L Hu
- 2 Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA.,5 School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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Burse A, Boland W. Deciphering the route to cyclic monoterpenes in Chrysomelina leaf beetles: source of new biocatalysts for industrial application? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 72:417-427. [PMID: 28593879 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2017-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The drastic growth of the population on our planet requires the efficient and sustainable use of our natural resources. Enzymes are indispensable tools for a wide range of industries producing food, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or biofuels. Because insects constitute one of the most species-rich classes of organisms colonizing almost every ecological niche on earth, they have developed extraordinary metabolic abilities to survive in various and sometimes extreme habitats. Despite this metabolic diversity, insect enzymes have only recently generated interest in industrial applications because only a few metabolic pathways have been sufficiently characterized. Here, we address the biosynthetic route to iridoids (cyclic monoterpenes), a group of secondary metabolites used by some members of the leaf beetle subtribe Chrysomelina as defensive compounds against their enemies. The ability to produce iridoids de novo has also convergently evolved in plants. From plant sources, numerous pharmacologically relevant structures have already been described. In addition, in plants, iridoids serve as building blocks for monoterpenoid indole alkaloids with broad therapeutic applications. As the commercial synthesis of iridoid-based drugs often relies on a semisynthetic approach involving biocatalysts, the discovery of enzymes from the insect iridoid route can account for a valuable resource and economic alternative to the previously used enzymes from the metabolism of plants. Hence, this review illustrates the recent discoveries made on the steps of the iridoid pathway in Chrysomelina leaf beetles. The findings are also placed in the context of the studied counterparts in plants and are further discussed regarding their use in technological approaches.
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19
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Cyriac VP, Kodandaramaiah U. Digging their own macroevolutionary grave: fossoriality as an evolutionary dead end in snakes. J Evol Biol 2018; 31:587-598. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- V. P. Cyriac
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE) and School of Biology; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram; Thiruvananthapuram India
| | - U. Kodandaramaiah
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE) and School of Biology; Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram; Thiruvananthapuram India
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20
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Albrectsen BR, Siddique AB, Decker VHG, Unterseher M, Robinson KM. Both plant genotype and herbivory shape aspen endophyte communities. Oecologia 2018; 187:535-545. [PMID: 29492690 PMCID: PMC5997111 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4097-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Salicinoid phenolic glycosides are common defence substances in salicaceous trees and specialist leaf beetles use these compounds for their own defence against predators. Salicinoids vary qualitatively and qualitatively in aspen (Populus tremula) and this variation has a genetic basis. The foliar endophyte mycobiome is plentiful and we hypothesised that it is related to plant genotype, potentially mediated by salicinoid composition, and that interactions with the leaf beetle Chrysomela tremula may alter this relationship. We studied these three-way interactions in controlled greenhouse experiments. Endophytic fungi were isolated from sterilised leaf tissues with and without beetle damage, and from beetles. We confirmed that endophyte composition was influenced by host genotype. Beetle activity added generalist morphs to the mycobiome that overrode the initial host association. Yeast-like genera (Cryptococcus and Rhodotorula) were isolated only from beetle-damaged tissues and from beetles, whereas fast-growing filamentous fungi dominated beetle-free control plants. Competition experiments between filamentous fungi of plant origin and beetle-related yeasts suggested interaction of both stimulating and inhibiting modes of action amongst the fungi. As a result, we detected examples of amensalism, commensalism, parasitism and competition between the morphs tested, but we found no evidence of mutualism, and consequently no co-evolutionary relationship could be demonstrated, between yeasts carried by beetles, host genotype and associated filamentous morphs. Endophyte studies are method-dependent and high-throughput sequencing technology best define the fungal mycobiome, culturing however continues to be a cheap way to provide fundamental ecological insights and it is also required for experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abu Bakar Siddique
- Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität Greifswald, Institut für Botanik und Landschaftsökologie, Soldmannstr. 15, 17487, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Vicki Huizu Guo Decker
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Martin Unterseher
- Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität Greifswald, Institut für Botanik und Landschaftsökologie, Soldmannstr. 15, 17487, Greifswald, Germany.,Evangelisches Schulzentrum Martinschule, Max-Planck- Str. 7, 17491, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Kathryn M Robinson
- Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Umeå, Sweden
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21
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Variation in defensive chemistry within a polyphagous Baikal population of Chrysomela lapponica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): potential benefits in a multi-enemy world. POPUL ECOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10144-017-0601-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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22
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Zvereva EL, Zverev V, Kruglova OY, Kozlov MV. Strategies of chemical anti-predator defences in leaf beetles: is sequestration of plant toxins less costly than de novo synthesis? Oecologia 2016; 183:93-106. [PMID: 27718063 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-016-3743-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of defensive traits is driven both by benefits gained from protection against enemies and by costs of defence production. We tested the hypothesis that specialisation of herbivores on toxic host plants, accompanied by the ability to acquire plant defensive compounds for herbivore defence, is favoured by the lower costs of sequestration compared to de novo synthesis of defensive compounds. We measured physiological costs of chemical defence as a reduction in larval performance in response to repeated removal of secretions (simulating predator attack) and compared these costs between five species synthesising defences de novo and three species sequestering salicylic glucosides (SGs) from their host plants. Experiments simulating low predator pressure revealed no physiological costs in terms of survival, weight and duration of development in any of study species. However, simulation of high predation caused reduction in relative growth rate in Chrysomela lapponica larvae producing autogenous defences more frequently, than in larvae sequestering SGs. Still meta-analysis of combined data showed no overall difference in costs of autogenous and sequestered defences. However, larvae synthesising their defences de novo demonstrated secretion-conserving behaviour, produced smaller amounts of secretions, replenished them at considerably lower rates and employed other types of defences (regurgitation, evasion) more frequently when compared to sequestering larvae. These latter results provide indirect evidence for biosynthetic constraints for amounts of defensive secretions produced de novo, resulting in low defence effectiveness. Lifting these constraints by sequestration may have driven some leaf beetle lineages toward sequestration of plant allelochemicals as the main defensive strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena L Zvereva
- Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014, Turku, Finland.
| | - Vitali Zverev
- Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Mikhail V Kozlov
- Section of Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014, Turku, Finland
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23
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Zvereva EL, Kozlov MV, Rank NE. Does ant predation favour leaf beetle specialization on toxic host plants? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nathan E. Rank
- Department of Biology; Sonoma State University; Rohnert Park CA USA
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24
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Petschenka G, Agrawal AA. How herbivores coopt plant defenses: natural selection, specialization, and sequestration. CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 14:17-24. [PMID: 27436642 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 12/20/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
We review progress in understanding sequestration by herbivorous insects, the use of plant chemical defenses for their own defense. We incorporate sequestration into the framework of plant-insect coevolution by integrating three hierarchical issues: (1) the relationship between dietary specialization and sequestration of plant defenses, (2) the physiological mechanisms involved in sequestration, and (3) how sequestration evolves via interactions between trophic levels. Sequestration is often associated with specialization, but even specialized sequestration is not an evolutionary dead-end. Despite considerable progress in understanding physiological mechanisms, detailed knowledge of how plant toxins cross the insect gut epithelium is still largely lacking. Sequestration is likely a major vehicle for coevolutionary escalation in speciose plant-insect-predator interactions, suggesting that a strictly bitrophic view is untenable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg Petschenka
- Institut für Insektenbiotechnologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Anurag A Agrawal
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, E425 Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
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25
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Two Defensive Lines in Juvenile Leaf Beetles; Esters of 3-nitropropionic Acid in the Hemolymph and Aposematic Warning. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:240-8. [PMID: 27033853 PMCID: PMC4839037 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0684-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Juveniles of the leaf beetles in subtribe Chrysomelina have efficient defense strategies against predators. When disturbed, they transiently expose volatile deterrents in large droplets from nine pairs of defensive glands on their back. Here, we report on an additional line of defense consisting of the non-volatile isoxazolin-5-one glucoside and its 3-nitropropanoyl ester in the larval hemolymph. Because isoxazolin-5-one derivatives were not detectable in related leaf beetle taxa, they serve as a diagnostic marker for the Chrysomelina subtribe. Conjugation of isotopically labelled 3-nitropropionic acid to isoxazolin-5-one glucoside in vivo demonstrates its function as a carrier for the 3-nitropropanoyl esters. The previous identification of characteristic glucosides as precursors of the volatile deterrents underlines the general importance of glucosides for sequestration from food plants, and the subsequent transport in the hemolymph to the defense system. The combination of repellent volatiles with non-volatile toxic compounds in the hemolymph has the potential to create synergistic effects since the odorant stimulus may help predators learn to avoid some foods. The combination of the two defense lines has the advantage, that the hemolymph toxins provide reliable and durable protection, while the repellents may vary after a host plant change.
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26
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Sequestration of plant-derived glycosides by leaf beetles: A model system for evolution and adaptation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pisc.2015.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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27
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Züst T, Agrawal AA. Population growth and sequestration of plant toxins along a gradient of specialization in four aphid species on the common milkweed
Asclepias syriaca. Funct Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Züst
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Cornell University Ithaca NY14853 USA
| | - Anurag A. Agrawal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Cornell University Ithaca NY14853 USA
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28
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Bramer C, Dobler S, Deckert J, Stemmer M, Petschenka G. Na+/K+-ATPase resistance and cardenolide sequestration: basal adaptations to host plant toxins in the milkweed bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae: Lygaeinae). Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142346. [PMID: 25808891 PMCID: PMC4389604 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite sequestration of toxins being a common coevolutionary response to plant defence in phytophagous insects, the macroevolution of the traits involved is largely unaddressed. Using a phylogenetic approach comprising species from four continents, we analysed the ability to sequester toxic cardenolides in the hemipteran subfamily Lygaeinae, which is widely associated with cardenolide-producing Apocynaceae. In addition, we analysed cardenolide resistance of their Na(+)/K(+)-ATPases, the molecular target of cardenolides. Our data indicate that cardenolide sequestration and cardenolide-resistant Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase are basal adaptations in the Lygaeinae. In two species that shifted to non-apocynaceous hosts, the ability to sequester was secondarily reduced, yet Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase resistance was maintained. We suggest that both traits evolved together and represent major coevolutionary adaptations responsible for the evolutionary success of lygaeine bugs. Moreover, specialization on cardenolides was not an evolutionary dead end, but enabled this insect lineage to host shift to cardenolide-producing plants from distantly related families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Bramer
- Biozentrum Grindel, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Susanne Dobler
- Biozentrum Grindel, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jürgen Deckert
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstrasse 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Georg Petschenka
- Biozentrum Grindel, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 3, 20146 Hamburg, Germany Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Corson Hall, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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29
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Geiselhardt S, Hilker M, Müller F, Kozlov MV, Zvereva EL. Inter- and Intrapopulation Variability in the Composition of Larval Defensive Secretions of Willow-Feeding Populations of the Leaf Beetle Chrysomela lapponica. J Chem Ecol 2015; 41:276-86. [PMID: 25804685 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-015-0558-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Revised: 01/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We explored the inter- and intrapopulation variability in the larval defensive chemistry of the leaf beetle Chrysomela lapponica with respect to the salicylic glycoside (SG) content of its host species. Secretions of larvae from three populations associated in nature with SG-poor willows contained nearly twice as many components and 40-fold higher concentrations of autogenously produced isobutyrates and 2-methylbutyrates than secretions of larvae from three populations associated with SG-rich willows, which in turn had 200-fold higher concentrations of host-derived salicylaldehyde. Reciprocal transfer experiments showed that the larvae from populations associated with SG-rich willows did not produce appreciable amounts of butyrates on either SG-rich or SG-poor willows, while populations feeding on several SG-poor willow species retained the ability for efficient sequestration of SGs, along with their ability to produce high amounts of isobutyrates and 2-methylbutyrates. Only the populations associated with SG-poor willows demonstrated among-family variation in the composition of defensive secretion and differential responses of individual families to willows with alternative SG levels, which can be seen as the prerequisites for shifting to novel hosts. These non-specialized populations show a dual defensive strategy, which corresponds to the ancestral state of this species, while populations that fully depend on host-derived toxins (feeding on SG-rich willows) or have lost the ability to produce salicylaldehyde (feeding on birches) are most deviant from the ancestral state. The results indicate that defensive strategies may differ between populations within a species, and suggest that this variation reduces extinction risks and maintains the high ecological diversity and wide distribution of C. lapponica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Geiselhardt
- Institute of Biology, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, Haderslebener Str. 9, D-12163, Berlin, Germany
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30
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Volf M, Hrcek J, Julkunen-Tiitto R, Novotny V. To each its own: differential response of specialist and generalist herbivores to plant defence in willows. J Anim Ecol 2015; 84:1123-32. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 01/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Volf
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Branisovska 31 37005 Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic
| | - Jan Hrcek
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Branisovska 31 37005 Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic
| | - Riitta Julkunen-Tiitto
- Department of Biology; University of Eastern Finland; Yliopistukatu 7 Box 111 80101 Joensuu Finland
| | - Vojtech Novotny
- Faculty of Science; University of South Bohemia and Biology Centre; The Czech Academy of Sciences; Branisovska 31 37005 Ceske Budejovice Czech Republic
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31
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Rahfeld P, Haeger W, Kirsch R, Pauls G, Becker T, Schulze E, Wielsch N, Wang D, Groth M, Brandt W, Boland W, Burse A. Glandular β-glucosidases in juvenile Chrysomelina leaf beetles support the evolution of a host-plant-dependent chemical defense. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2015; 58:28-38. [PMID: 25596091 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2014] [Revised: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Plant-feeding insects are spread across the entire plant kingdom. Because they chew externally on leaves, leaf beetle of the subtribe Chrysomelina sensu stricto are constantly exposed to life-threatening predators and parasitoids. To counter these pressures, the juveniles repel their enemies by displaying glandular secretions that contain defensive compounds. These repellents can be produced either de novo (iridoids) or by using plant-derived precursors. The autonomous production of iridoids pre-dates the evolution of phytochemical-based defense strategies. Both strategies include hydrolysis of the secreted non-toxic glycosides in the defensive exudates. By combining in vitro as well as in vivo experiments, we show that iridoid de novo producing as well as sequestering species rely on secreted β-glucosidases to cleave the pre-toxins. Our phylogenetic analyses support a common origin of chrysomeline β-glucosidases. The kinetic parameters of these β-glucosidases demonstrated substrate selectivity which reflects the adaptation of Chrysomelina sensu stricto to the chemistry of their hosts during the course of evolution. However, the functional studies also showed that the broad substrate selectivity allows building a chemical defense, which is dependent on the host plant, but does not lead to an "evolutionary dead end".
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Rahfeld
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Wiebke Haeger
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany; Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Roy Kirsch
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Gerhard Pauls
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Tobias Becker
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Eva Schulze
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Natalie Wielsch
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry/Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Ding Wang
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Marco Groth
- Genome Analysis Group, Leibniz Institute for Age Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Brandt
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Leibniz Institute of Plant Biochemistry, Halle (Saale), Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Antje Burse
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany.
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32
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Rahfeld P, Kirsch R, Kugel S, Wielsch N, Stock M, Groth M, Boland W, Burse A. Independently recruited oxidases from the glucose-methanol-choline oxidoreductase family enabled chemical defences in leaf beetle larvae (subtribe Chrysomelina) to evolve. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 281:20140842. [PMID: 24943369 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.0842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Larvae of the leaf beetle subtribe Chrysomelina sensu stricto repel their enemies by displaying glandular secretions that contain defensive compounds. These repellents can be produced either de novo (iridoids) or by using plant-derived precursors (e.g. salicylaldehyde). The autonomous production of iridoids, as in Phaedon cochleariae, is the ancestral chrysomeline chemical defence and predates the evolution of salicylaldehyde-based defence. Both biosynthesis strategies include an oxidative step of an alcohol intermediate. In salicylaldehyde-producing species, this step is catalysed by salicyl alcohol oxidases (SAOs) of the glucose-methanol-choline (GMC) oxidoreductase superfamily, but the enzyme oxidizing the iridoid precursor is unknown. Here, we show by in vitro as well as in vivo experiments that P. cochleariae also uses an oxidase from the GMC superfamily for defensive purposes. However, our phylogenetic analysis of chrysomeline GMC oxidoreductases revealed that the oxidase of the iridoid pathway originated from a GMC clade different from that of the SAOs. Thus, the evolution of a host-independent chemical defence followed by a shift to a host-dependent chemical defence in chrysomeline beetles coincided with the utilization of genes from different GMC subfamilies. These findings illustrate the importance of the GMC multi-gene family for adaptive processes in plant-insect interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Rahfeld
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Roy Kirsch
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Susann Kugel
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Natalie Wielsch
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry/Proteomics, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Magdalena Stock
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Marco Groth
- Genome Analysis Group, Leibniz Institute for Age Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Antje Burse
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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Austel N, Reinecke A, Björkman C, Hilker M, Meiners T. Phenotypic plasticity in a willow leaf beetle depends on host plant species: release and recognition of beetle odors. Chem Senses 2014; 40:109-24. [PMID: 25537016 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bju065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aggregation behavior of herbivorous insects is mediated by a wide range of biotic and abiotic factors. It has been suggested that aggregation behavior of the blue willow leaf beetle Phratora vulgatissima is mediated by both host plant odor and by odor released by the beetles. Previous studies show that the beetles respond to plant odors according to their prior host plant experiences. Here, we analyzed the effect of the host plant species on odor released and perceived by adult P. vulgatissima. The major difference between the odor of beetles feeding on salicin-rich and salicin-poor host plants was the presence of salicylaldehyde in the odor of the former, where both males and females released this compound. Electrophysiological studies showed that the intensity of responses to single components of odor released by beetles was sex specific and dependent on the host plant species with which the beetles were fed. Finally, behavioral studies revealed that males feeding on salicin-rich willows were attracted by salicylaldehyde, whereas females did not respond behaviorally to this compound, despite showing clear antennal responses to it. Finally, the ecological relevance of the influence of a host plant species on the plasticity of beetle odor chemistry, perception, and behavior is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Austel
- Freie Universitaet Berlin, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Institute of Biology, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Reinecke
- Department of Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany, Present address: Department of Behavioural Ecology and Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Straße 4, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Christer Björkman
- Department of Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7044, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Monika Hilker
- Freie Universitaet Berlin, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Institute of Biology, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163 Berlin, Germany
| | - Torsten Meiners
- Freie Universitaet Berlin, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Institute of Biology, Haderslebener Straße 9, 12163 Berlin, Germany, Department of Chemical Biology, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffen-Straße 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Fürstenberg-Hägg J, Zagrobelny M, Jørgensen K, Vogel H, Møller BL, Bak S. Chemical defense balanced by sequestration and de novo biosynthesis in a lepidopteran specialist. PLoS One 2014; 9:e108745. [PMID: 25299618 PMCID: PMC4191964 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0108745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of sequestration (uptake and accumulation) relative to de novo biosynthesis of chemical defense compounds is poorly understood, as is the interplay between these two strategies. The Burnet moth Zygaena filipendulae (Lepidoptera) and its food-plant Lotus corniculatus (Fabaceae) poses an exemplary case study of these questions, as Z. filipendulae belongs to the only insect family known to both de novo biosynthesize and sequester the same defense compounds directly from its food-plant. Z. filipendulae and L. corniculatus both contain the two cyanogenic glucosides linamarin and lotaustralin, which are defense compounds that can be hydrolyzed to liberate toxic hydrogen cyanide. The overall amounts and ratios of linamarin and lotaustralin in Z. filipendulae are tightly regulated, and only to a low extent reflect the ratio in the ingested food-plant. We demonstrate that Z. filipendulae adjusts the de novo biosynthesis of CNglcs by regulation at both the transcriptional and protein level depending on food plant composition. Ultimately this ensures that the larva saves energy and nitrogen while maintaining an effective defense system to fend off predators. By using in situ PCR and immunolocalization, the biosynthetic pathway was resolved to the larval fat body and integument, which infers rapid replenishment of defense compounds following an encounter with a predator. Our study supports the hypothesis that de novo biosynthesis of CNglcs in Z. filipendulae preceded the ability to sequester, and facilitated a food-plant switch to cyanogenic plants, after which sequestration could evolve. Preservation of de novo biosynthesis allows fine-tuning of the amount and composition of CNglcs in Z. filipendulae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joel Fürstenberg-Hägg
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VILLUM Research Center “Plant Plasticity”, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mika Zagrobelny
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VILLUM Research Center “Plant Plasticity”, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kirsten Jørgensen
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VILLUM Research Center “Plant Plasticity”, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Heiko Vogel
- Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Birger Lindberg Møller
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VILLUM Research Center “Plant Plasticity”, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Bak
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- VILLUM Research Center “Plant Plasticity”, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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Strauss AS, Wang D, Stock M, Gretscher RR, Groth M, Boland W, Burse A. Tissue-specific transcript profiling for ABC transporters in the sequestering larvae of the phytophagous leaf beetle Chrysomela populi. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98637. [PMID: 24887102 PMCID: PMC4041752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insects evolved ingenious adaptations to use extraordinary food sources. Particularly, the diet of herbivores enriched with noxious plant secondary metabolites requires detoxification mechanisms. Sequestration, which involves the uptake, transfer, and concentration of occasionally modified phytochemicals into specialized tissues or hemolymph, is one of the most successful detoxification strategies found in most insect orders. Due to the ability of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) carriers to transport a wide range of molecules including phytochemicals and xenobiotics, it is highly likely that they play a role in this sequestration process. To shed light on the role of ABC proteins in sequestration, we describe an inventory of putative ABC transporters in various tissues in the sequestering juvenile poplar leaf beetle, Chrysomela populi. RESULTS In the transcriptome of C. populi, we predicted 65 ABC transporters. To link the proteins with a possible function, we performed comparative phylogenetic analyses with ABC transporters of other insects and of humans. While tissue-specific profiling of each ABC transporter subfamily suggests that ABCB, C and G influence the plant metabolite absorption in the gut, ABCC with 14 members is the preferred subfamily responsible for the excretion of these metabolites via Malpighian tubules. Moreover, salicin, which is sequestered from poplar plants, is translocated into the defensive glands for further deterrent production. In these glands and among all identified ABC transporters, an exceptionally high transcript level was observed only for Cpabc35 (Cpmrp). RNAi revealed the deficiency of other ABC pumps to compensate the function of CpABC35, demonstrating its key role during sequestration. CONCLUSION We provide the first comprehensive phylogenetic study of the ABC family in a phytophagous beetle species. RNA-seq data from different larval tissues propose the importance of ABC pumps to achieve a homeostasis of plant-derived compounds and offer a basis for future analyses of their physiological function in sequestration processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja S. Strauss
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Ding Wang
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Magdalena Stock
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - René R. Gretscher
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Marco Groth
- Leibniz Institute for Age Research – Fritz Lipmann Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Antje Burse
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, D-07745 Jena, Thuringia, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Chaboo CS, Frieiro-Costa FA, Gómez-Zurita J, Westerduijn R. Origins and diversification of subsociality in leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae: Chrysomelinae). J NAT HIST 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2014.909060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline S. Chaboo
- Division of Entomology, Natural History Museum and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, USA
| | | | - Jesús Gómez-Zurita
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Barcelona, Spain
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Stock M, Gretscher RR, Groth M, Eiserloh S, Boland W, Burse A. Putative sugar transporters of the mustard leaf beetle Phaedon cochleariae: their phylogeny and role for nutrient supply in larval defensive glands. PLoS One 2013; 8:e84461. [PMID: 24391959 PMCID: PMC3877287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Phytophagous insects have emerged successfully on the planet also because of the development of diverse and often astonishing defensive strategies against their enemies. The larvae of the mustard leaf beetle Phaedon cochleariae, for example, secrete deterrents from specialized defensive glands on their back. The secretion process involves ATP-binding cassette transporters. Therefore, sugar as one of the major energy sources to fuel the ATP synthesis for the cellular metabolism and transport processes, has to be present in the defensive glands. However, the role of sugar transporters for the production of defensive secretions was not addressed until now. Results To identify sugar transporters in P. cochleariae, a transcript catalogue was created by Illumina sequencing of cDNA libraries. A total of 68,667 transcripts were identified and 68 proteins were annotated as either members of the solute carrier 2 (SLC2) family or trehalose transporters. Phylogenetic analyses revealed an extension of the mammalian GLUT6/8 class in insects as well as one group of transporters exhibiting distinctive conserved motifs only present in the insect order Coleoptera. RNA-seq data of samples derived from the defensive glands revealed six transcripts encoding sugar transporters with more than 3,000 counts. Two of them are exclusively expressed in the glandular tissue. Reduction in secretions production was accomplished by silencing two of four selected transporters. RNA-seq experiments of transporter-silenced larvae showed the down-regulation of the silenced transporter but concurrently the up-regulation of other SLC2 transporters suggesting an adaptive system to maintain sugar homeostasis in the defensive glands. Conclusion We provide the first comprehensive phylogenetic study of the SLC2 family in a phytophagous beetle species. RNAi and RNA-seq experiments underline the importance of SLC2 transporters in defensive glands to achieve a chemical defense for successful competitive interaction in natural ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Stock
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - René R Gretscher
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Marco Groth
- Genome Analysis Group, Leibniz Institute for Age Research - Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Simone Eiserloh
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
| | - Antje Burse
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Thuringia, Germany
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Strauss AS, Peters S, Boland W, Burse A. ABC transporter functions as a pacemaker for sequestration of plant glucosides in leaf beetles. eLife 2013; 2:e01096. [PMID: 24302568 PMCID: PMC3843118 DOI: 10.7554/elife.01096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant-herbivore interactions dominate the planet’s terrestrial ecology. When it comes to host–plant specialization, insects are among the most versatile evolutionary innovators, able to disarm multiple chemical plant defenses. Sequestration is a widespread strategy to detoxify noxious metabolites, frequently for the insect’s own benefit against predation. In this study, we describe the broad-spectrum ATP-binding cassette transporter CpMRP of the poplar leaf beetle, Chrysomela populi as the first candidate involved in the sequestration of phytochemicals in insects. CpMRP acts in the defensive glands of the larvae as a pacemaker for the irreversible shuttling of pre-selected metabolites from the hemolymph into defensive secretions. Silencing CpMRP in vivo creates a defenseless phenotype, indicating its role in the secretion process is crucial. In the defensive glands of related leaf beetle species, we identified sequences similar to CpMRP and assume therefore that exocrine gland-based defensive strategies, evolved by these insects to repel their enemies, rely on ABC transporters as a key element. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01096.001 For millions of years, plant feeding insects have been locked in an arms race with the plants they consume. Plants have evolved defensive strategies such as the ability to produce noxious chemicals that deter insects, while many insects have evolved the means to thwart this defense and even turn it to their own advantage. The larvae of the poplar leaf beetle, Chrysomela populi, sequester toxic plant compounds in specialized glands on their backs and use these compounds to defend themselves against predators. The glands are lined with chemically inert chitin, the substance that makes up the insect exoskeleton, and the deterrent chemicals are released whenever the insect is threatened. Now, Strauss et al. have identified a key transport protein used by the larvae to move toxic plant compounds to these glands. This transport protein belongs to a family of membrane proteins called ABC transporters, which help to shuttle substances out of cells or into cell organelles using energy produced by the hydrolysis of ATP molecules. The gene for this transporter is expressed in the glands of the leaf beetles at levels 7,000 times higher than elsewhere in the larvae. Larvae that lack a functional version of the transporter gene continue to grow, but are unable to defend themselves against predators. Similar genes are found in other species of leaf beetle, suggesting that this type of transporter has been retained throughout evolution. Moreover, the transporter is not specific to a particular plant toxin; this enables leaf beetles to eat many different types of plants and boosts their chances of survival should a previous food source disappear. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01096.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja S Strauss
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
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39
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Eben A, Espinosa de Los Monteros A. Tempo and mode of evolutionary radiation in Diabroticina beetles (genera Acalymma, Cerotoma, and Diabrotica). Zookeys 2013:207-321. [PMID: 24163585 PMCID: PMC3805322 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.332.5220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adaptive radiation is an aspect of evolutionary biology encompassing microevolution and macroevolution, for explaining the principles of lineage divergence. There are intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors that can be postulated to explain that adaptive radiation has taken place in specific lineages. The Diabroticina beetles are a prominent example of differential diversity that could be examined in detail to explain the diverse paradigms of adaptive radiation. Macroevolutionary analyses must present the differential diversity patterns in a chronological framework. The current study reviews the processes that shaped the differential diversity of some Diabroticina lineages (i.e. genera Acalymma, Cerotoma, and Diabrotica). These diversity patterns and the putative processes that produced them are discussed within a statistically reliable estimate of time. This was achieved by performing phylogenetic and coalescent analyses for 44 species of chrysomelid beetles. The data set encompassed a total of 2,718 nucleotide positions from three mitochondrial and two nuclear loci. Pharmacophagy, host plant coevolution, competitive exclusion, and geomorphological complexity are discussed as putative factors that might have influenced the observed diversity patterns. The coalescent analysis concluded that the main radiation within Diabroticina beetles occurred between middle Oligocene and middle Miocene. Therefore, the radiation observed in these beetles is not recent (i.e. post-Panamanian uplift, 4 Mya). Only a few speciation events in the genus Diabrotica might be the result of the Pleistocene climatic oscillations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Eben
- Julius Kühn-Institut, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants JKI, Schwabenheimer Straße 101, 69221 Dossenheim, Germany
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Boevé JL, Blank SM, Meijer G, Nyman T. Invertebrate and avian predators as drivers of chemical defensive strategies in tenthredinid sawflies. BMC Evol Biol 2013; 13:198. [PMID: 24041372 PMCID: PMC3848831 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many insects are chemically defended against predatory vertebrates and invertebrates. Nevertheless, our understanding of the evolution and diversity of insect defenses remains limited, since most studies have focused on visual signaling of defenses against birds, thereby implicitly underestimating the impact of insectivorous insects. In the larvae of sawflies in the family Tenthredinidae (Hymenoptera), which feed on various plants and show diverse lifestyles, two distinct defensive strategies are found: easy bleeding of deterrent hemolymph, and emission of volatiles by ventral glands. Here, we used phylogenetic information to identify phylogenetic correlations among various ecological and defensive traits in order to estimate the relative importance of avian versus invertebrate predation. RESULTS The mapping of 12 ecological and defensive traits on phylogenetic trees inferred from DNA sequences reveals the discrete distribution of easy bleeding that occurs, among others, in the genus Athalia and the tribe Phymatocerini. By contrast, occurrence of ventral glands is restricted to the monophyletic subfamily Nematinae, which are never easy bleeders. Both strategies are especially effective towards insectivorous insects such as ants, while only Nematinae species are frequently brightly colored and truly gregarious. Among ten tests of phylogenetic correlation between traits, only a few are significant. None of these involves morphological traits enhancing visual signals, but easy bleeding is associated with the absence of defensive body movements and with toxins occurring in the host plant. Easy bleeding functions through a combination of attributes, which is corroborated by an independent contrasts test indicating a statistically significant negative correlation between species-level integument mechanical resistance and hemolymph feeding deterrence against ants. CONCLUSIONS Our analyses evidence a repeated occurrence of easy bleeding, and no phylogenetic correlation including specific visual signals is significant. We conclude that the evolution of chemically-based defenses in tenthredinids may have been driven by invertebrate as much as by avian predation. The clear-cut visual signaling often encountered in the Nematinae would be linked to differential trends of habitat use by prey and predators. Further studies on (prey) insect groups should include visual signals and other traits, as well as several groups of natural enemies, to better interpret their relative significance and to refine our understanding of insect chemical defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Luc Boevé
- Department of Entomology, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium.
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41
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Weak defence in a tritrophic system: olfactory response to salicylaldehyde reflects prey specialization of potter wasps. CHEMOECOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-013-0133-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Pruitt JN. A real-time eco-evolutionary dead-end strategy is mediated by the traits of lineage progenitors and interactions with colony invaders. Ecol Lett 2013; 16:879-86. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N. Pruitt
- Department of Biological Sciences; University of Pittsburgh; Pittsburgh; Pennsylvania; 15260; USA
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Metal ions control product specificity of isoprenyl diphosphate synthases in the insect terpenoid pathway. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:4194-9. [PMID: 23440195 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1221489110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Isoprenyl diphosphate synthases (IDSs) produce the ubiquitous branched-chain diphosphates of different lengths that are precursors of all major classes of terpenes. Typically, individual short-chain IDSs (scIDSs) make the C10, C15, and C20 isoprenyl diphosphates separately. Here, we report that the product length synthesized by a single scIDS shifts depending on the divalent metal cofactor present. This previously undescribed mechanism of carbon chain-length determination was discovered for a scIDS from juvenile horseradish leaf beetles, Phaedon cochleariae. The recombinant enzyme P. cochleariae isoprenyl diphosphate synthase 1 (PcIDS1) yields 96% C10-geranyl diphosphate (GDP) and only 4% C15-farnesyl diphosphate (FDP) in the presence of Co(2+) or Mn(2+) as a cofactor, whereas it yields only 18% C10 GDP but 82% C15 FDP in the presence of Mg(2+). In reaction with Co(2+), PcIDS1 has a Km of 11.6 μM for dimethylallyl diphosphate as a cosubstrate and 24.3 μM for GDP. However, with Mg(2+), PcIDS1 has a Km of 1.18 μM for GDP, suggesting that this substrate is favored by the enzyme under such conditions. RNAi targeting PcIDS1 revealed the participation of this enzyme in the de novo synthesis of defensive monoterpenoids in the beetle larvae. As an FDP synthase, PcIDS1 could be associated with the formation of sesquiterpenes, such as juvenile hormones. Detection of Co(2+), Mn(2+), or Mg(2+) in the beetle larvae suggests flux control into C10 vs. C15 isoprenoids could be accomplished by these ions in vivo. The dependence of product chain length of scIDSs on metal cofactor identity introduces an additional regulation for these branch point enzymes of terpene metabolism.
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Klimov PB, OConnor B. Is permanent parasitism reversible?--critical evidence from early evolution of house dust mites. Syst Biol 2013; 62:411-23. [PMID: 23417682 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syt008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term specialization may limit the ability of a species to respond to new environmental conditions and lead to a higher likelihood of extinction. For permanent parasites and other symbionts, the most intriguing question is whether these organisms can return to a free-living lifestyle and, thus, escape an evolutionary "dead end." This question is directly related to Dollo's law, which stipulates that a complex trait (such as being free living vs. parasitic) cannot re-evolve again in the same form. Here, we present conclusive evidence that house dust mites, a group of medically important free-living organisms, evolved from permanent parasites of warm-blooded vertebrates. A robust, multigene topology (315 taxa, 8942 nt), ancestral character state reconstruction, and a test for irreversible evolution (Dollo's law) demonstrate that house dust mites have abandoned a parasitic lifestyle, secondarily becoming free living, and then speciated in several habitats. Hence, as exemplified by this model system, highly specialized permanent parasites may drastically de-specialize to the extent of becoming free living and, thus escape from dead-end evolution. Our phylogenetic and historical ecological framework explains the limited cross-reactivity between allergens from the house dust mites and "storage" mites and the ability of the dust mites to inhibit host immune responses. It also provides insights into how ancestral features related to parasitism (frequent ancestral shifts to unrelated hosts, tolerance to lower humidity, and pre-existing enzymes targeting skin and keratinous materials) played a major role in reversal to the free-living state. We propose that parasitic ancestors of pyroglyphids shifted to nests of vertebrates. Later the nest-inhabiting pyroglyphids expanded into human dwellings to become a major source of allergens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel B Klimov
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079, USA.
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Vereecken NJ, Wilson CA, Hötling S, Schulz S, Banketov SA, Mardulyn P. Pre-adaptations and the evolution of pollination by sexual deception: Cope's rule of specialization revisited. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:4786-94. [PMID: 23055065 PMCID: PMC3497092 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.1804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2012] [Accepted: 09/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pollination by sexual deception is arguably one of the most unusual liaisons linking plants and insects, and perhaps the most illustrative example of extreme floral specialization in angiosperms. While considerable progress has been made in understanding the floral traits involved in sexual deception, less is known about how this remarkable mimicry system might have arisen, the role of pre-adaptations in promoting its evolution and its extent as a pollination mechanism outside the few groups of plants (primarily orchids) where it has been described to date. In the Euro-Mediterranean region, pollination by sexual deception is traditionally considered to be the hallmark of the orchid genus Ophrys. Here, we introduce two new cases outside of Ophrys, in plant groups dominated by generalized, shelter-mimicking species. On the basis of phylogenetic reconstructions of ancestral pollination strategies, we provide evidence for independent and bidirectional evolutionary transitions between generalized (shelter mimicry) and specialized (sexual deception) pollination strategies in three groups of flowering plants, and suggest that pseudocopulation has evolved from pre-adaptations (floral colours, shapes and odour bouquets) that selectively attract male pollinators through shelter mimicry. These findings, along with comparative analyses of floral traits (colours and scents), shed light on particular phenotypic changes that might have fuelled the parallel evolution of these extraordinary pollination strategies. Collectively, our results provide the first substantive insights into how pollination sexual deception might have evolved in the Euro-Mediterranean region, and demonstrate that even the most extreme cases of pollinator specialization can reverse to more generalized interactions, breaking 'Cope's rule of specialization'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas J Vereecken
- Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, Free University of Brussels/Université Libre de Bruxelles, Av. F. D. Roosevelt 50 CP 160/12, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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Bodemann RR, Rahfeld P, Stock M, Kunert M, Wielsch N, Groth M, Frick S, Boland W, Burse A. Precise RNAi-mediated silencing of metabolically active proteins in the defence secretions of juvenile leaf beetles. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:4126-34. [PMID: 22874750 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.1342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Allomones are widely used by insects to impede predation. Frequently these chemical stimuli are released from specialized glands. The larvae of Chrysomelina leaf beetles produce allomones in gland reservoirs into which the required precursors and also the enzymes are secreted from attached gland cells. Hence, the reservoirs can be considered as closed bio-reactors for producing defensive secretions. We used RNA interference (RNAi) to analyse in vivo functions of proteins in biosynthetic pathways occurring in insect secretions. After a salicyl alcohol oxidase was silenced in juveniles of the poplar leaf beetles, Chrysomela populi, the precursor salicyl alcohol increased to 98 per cent, while salicyl aldehyde was reduced to 2 per cent within 5 days. By analogy, we have silenced a novel protein annotated as a member of the juvenile hormone-binding protein superfamily in the juvenile defensive glands of the related mustard leaf beetle, Phaedon cochleariae. The protein is associated with the cyclization of 8-oxogeranial to iridoids (methylcyclopentanoid monoterpenes) in the larval exudates made clear by the accumulation of the acylic precursor 5 days after RNAi triggering. A similar cyclization reaction produces the secologanin part of indole alkaloids in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- René Roberto Bodemann
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Beutenberg Campus, Hans-Knoell-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Phylogenetics and evolution of host-plant use in leaf-mining sawflies (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae: Heterarthrinae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2012; 64:331-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2012.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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48
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Pellissier L, Litsios G, Guisan A, Alvarez N. Molecular substitution rate increases in myrmecophilous lycaenid butterflies (Lepidoptera). ZOOL SCR 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-6409.2012.00556.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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49
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Opitz SEW, Boevé JL, Nagy ZT, Sonet G, Koch F, Müller C. Host shifts from Lamiales to Brassicaceae in the sawfly genus Athalia. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33649. [PMID: 22485146 PMCID: PMC3317781 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant chemistry can be a key driver of host shifts in herbivores. Several species in the sawfly genus Athalia are important economic pests on Brassicaceae, whereas other Athalia species are specialized on Lamiales. These host plants have glucosides in common, which are sequestered by larvae. To disentangle the possible direction of host shifts in this genus, we examined the sequestration specificity and feeding deterrence of iridoid glucosides (IGs) and glucosinolates (GSs) in larvae of five species which either naturally sequester IGs from their hosts within the Plantaginaceae (Lamiales) or GSs from Brassicaceae, respectively. Furthermore, adults were tested for feeding stimulation by a neo-clerodane diterpenoid which occurs in Lamiales. Larvae of the Plantaginaceae-feeders did not sequester artificially administered p-hydroxybenzylGS and were more deterred by GSs than Brassicaceae-feeders were by IGs. In contrast, larvae of Brassicaceae-feeders were able to sequester artificially administered catalpol (IG), which points to an ancestral association with Lamiales. In line with this finding, adults of all tested species were stimulated by the neo-clerodane diterpenoid. Finally, in a phylogenetic tree inferred from genetic marker sequences of 21 Athalia species, the sister species of all remaining 20 Athalia species also turned out to be a Lamiales-feeder. Fundamental physiological pre-adaptations, such as the establishment of a glucoside transporter, and mechanisms to circumvent activation of glucosides by glucosidases are therefore necessary prerequisites for successful host shifts between Lamiales and Brassicaceae.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jean-Luc Boevé
- IRSNB-KBIN, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Zoltán Tamás Nagy
- IRSNB-KBIN, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Gontran Sonet
- IRSNB-KBIN, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Bruxelles, Belgium
| | - Frank Koch
- Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung an der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Caroline Müller
- Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Mardulyn P, Othmezouri N, Mikhailov YE, Pasteels JM. Conflicting mitochondrial and nuclear phylogeographic signals and evolution of host-plant shifts in the boreo-montane leaf beetle Chrysomela lapponica. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2011; 61:686-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2011.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2010] [Revised: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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