Trypsin is a multifunctional factor in spermatogenesis

Primary culture and endocrine functional analysis of Leydig cells in ducks (Anas platyrhynchos)

Testicular Leydig cells (LCs) are the primary known source of testosterone, which is necessary for maintaining spermatogenesis and male fertility. However, the isolation, identification, and functional analysis of testosterone in duck LCs are still ambiguous. The aim of the present study was to establish a feasible method for isolating highly purified primary duck LCs. The highly purified primary duck LCs were isolated from the fresh testes of 2-month-old ducks via the digestion of collagenase IV and Percoll density gradient centrifugation; hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining, ELISA, and radioimmunoassay were performed. Results revealed that the LCs were prominently noticeable in the testicular interstitium of 2-month-old ducks as compared to 6-month-old and 1-year-old ducks. Furthermore, IHC demonstrated that the cultured LCs occupied 90% area of the petri dish and highly expressed 3β-HSD 24 h after culture (hac) as compared to 48 and 72 hac. Additionally, ELISA and radioimmunoassay indicate that the testosterone level in cellular supernatant was highly expressed in 24 and 48 hac, whereas the testosterone level gradually decreased in 72 and 96 hac, indicating the primary duck LCs secrete testosterone at an early stage. Based on the above results, the present study has effectively developed a technique for isolating highly purified primary duck LCs and identified its biological function in synthesizing testosterone.

Towards Electrochemical Sensor Based on Molecularly Imprinted Polypyrrole for the Detection of Bacteria-Listeria monocytogenes

Detecting bacteria-Listeria monocytogenes-is an essential healthcare and food industry issue. The objective of the current study was to apply platinum (Pt) and screen-printed carbon (SPCE) electrodes modified by molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) in the design of an electrochemical sensor for the detection of Listeria monocytogenes. A sequence of potential pulses was used to perform the electrochemical deposition of the non-imprinted polypyrrole (NIP-Ppy) layer and Listeria monocytogenes-imprinted polypyrrole (MIP-Ppy) layer over SPCE and Pt electrodes. The bacteria were removed by incubating Ppy-modified electrodes in different extraction solutions (sulphuric acid, acetic acid, L-lysine, and trypsin) to determine the most efficient solution for extraction and to obtain a more sensitive and repeatable design of the sensor. The performance of MIP-Ppy- and NIP-Ppy-modified electrodes was evaluated by pulsed amperometric detection (PAD). According to the results of this research, it can be assumed that the most effective MIP-Ppy/SPCE sensor can be designed by removing bacteria with the proteolytic enzyme trypsin. The LOD and LOQ of the MIP-Ppy/SPCE were 70 CFU/mL and 210 CFU/mL, respectively, with a linear range from 300 to 6700 CFU/mL.

An Antibacterial Peptide with High Resistance to Trypsin Obtained by Substituting d-Amino Acids for Trypsin Cleavage Sites

The poor stability of antibacterial peptide to protease limits its clinical application. Among these limitations, trypsin mainly exists in digestive tract, which is an insurmountable obstacle to orally delivered peptides. OM19R is a random curly polyproline cationic antimicrobial peptide, which has high antibacterial activity against some gram-negative bacteria, but its stability against pancreatin is poor. According to the structure-activity relationship of OM19R, all cationic amino acid residues (l-arginine and l-lysine) at the trypsin cleavage sites were replaced with corresponding d-amino acid residues to obtain the designed peptide OM19D, which not only maintained its antibacterial activity but also enhanced the stability of trypsin. Proceeding high concentrations of trypsin and long-time (such as 10 mg/mL, 8 h) treatment, it still had high antibacterial activity (MIC = 16–32 µg/mL). In addition, OM19D also showed high stability to serum, plasma and other environmental factors. It is similar to its parent peptide in secondary structure and mechanism of action. Therefore, this strategy is beneficial to improve the protease stability of antibacterial peptides.

Specific visualization of live type A spermatogonia of Pacific bluefin tuna using fluorescent dye-conjugated antibodies†

During our previous work toward establishing surrogate broodstock that can produce donor-derived gametes by germ cell transplantation, we found that only type A spermatogonia (ASGs) have the potency to colonize recipient gonads. Therefore, the ability to visualize ASGs specifically would allow the sequential analysis of donor cell behavior in the recipient gonads. Here we produced monoclonal antibodies that could recognize the cell surface antigens of ASGs in Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis), with the aim of visualizing live ASGs. We generated monoclonal antibodies by inoculating Pacific bluefin tuna testicular cells containing ASGs into mice and then screened them using cell-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunocytochemistry, flow cytometry (FCM), and immunohistochemistry, which resulted in the selection of two antibodies (Nos. 152 and 180) from a pool of 1152 antibodies. We directly labeled these antibodies with fluorescent dye, which allowed ASG-like cells to be visualized in a one-step procedure using immunocytochemistry. Molecular marker analyses against the FCM-sorted fluorescent cells confirmed that ASGs were highly enriched in the antibody-positive fraction. To evaluate the migratory capability of the ASGs, we transplanted visualized cells into the peritoneal cavity of nibe croaker (Nibea mitsukurii) larvae. This resulted in incorporated fluorescent cells labeled with antibody No. 152 being detected in the recipient gonads, suggesting that the visualized ASGs possessed migratory and incorporation capabilities. Thus, the donor germ cell visualization method that was developed in this study will facilitate and simplify Pacific bluefin tuna germ cell transplantation.

Sperm quality in fish: Determinants and affecting factors

Fish sperm quality assessment is helpful for optimizing production and for monitoring the environmental state. Sperm can be monitored relatively easy and, to date, various analyses have been applied and proven to be helpful in this task. Among them, sperm motility parameters such as sperm speed are one of the main performance traits during assisted fish reproduction. Apart from motility the sperm concentration, volume, and seminal plasma pH and osmolality are also frequently evaluated and are the main sperm quality indicators measured in fish sperm. However, other parameters also determine sperm fertilization potential. Recent knowledge reveals several additional parameters of high importance for sperm function. Among them are DNA integration, membrane stability, mitochondria status and enzymatic activity. Measuring all these parameters in fish sperm provides complex knowledge regarding male fertility and helps to improve broodstock maintenance protocols as well as gamete handling and fertilization processes. This review focuses on the presentation of the sperm quality measures for freshwater and marine species of the fish and provides information regarding recent methods of sperm quality evaluation.

Chemical and physical guidance of fish spermatozoa into the egg through the micropyle†,‡

Eggs of teleost fish, unlike those of many other animals, allow sperm entry only at a single site, a narrow canal in the egg's chorion called the micropyle. In some fish (e.g., flounder, herring, and Alaska pollock), the micropyle is a narrow channel in the chorion, with or without a shallow depression around the outer opening of micropyle. In some other fish (e.g., salmon, pufferfish, cod, and medaka), the micropyle is like a funnel with a conical opening. Eggs of all the above fish have a glycoprotein tightly bound to the chorion surface around the micropyle. This glycoprotein directs spermatozoa into the micropylar canal in a Ca2+-dependent manner. This substance, called the micropylar sperm attractant or MISA, increases fertilization efficiency and is essential in herring. In flounder, salmon, and perhaps medaka, fertilization is possible without MISA, but its absence makes fertilization inefficient because most spermatozoa swim over the micropyle without entering it. The mechanism underlying sperm-MISA interactions is yet to be determined, but at least in herring the involvement of Ca2+ and K+ channel proteins, as well as CatSper and adenylyl cyclase, is very likely. In some other fish (e.g., zebrafish, loach, and goldfish), the chorion around the micropyle is deeply indented (e.g., zebrafish and loach) or it has radially or spirally arranged grooves around the outer opening of the micropyle (e.g., goldfish). MISA is absent from the eggs of these fish and sperm entry into micropylar canal seems to be purely physical.

Toward developing recombinant gonadotropin-based hormone therapies for increasing fertility in the flatfish Senegalese sole

Captive flatfishes, such as the Senegalese sole, typically produce very low volumes of sperm. This situation is particularly prevalent in the first generation (F1) of reared sole males, which limits the development of artificial fertilization methods and the implementation of selective breeding programs. In this study, we investigated whether combined treatments with homologous recombinant follicle-stimulating (rFsh) and luteinizing (rLh) hormones, produced in a mammalian host system, could stimulate spermatogenesis and enhance sperm production in Senegalese sole F1 males. In an initial autumn/winter experiment, weekly intramuscular injections with increasing doses of rFsh over 9 weeks resulted in the stimulation of gonad weight, androgen release, germ cell proliferation and entry into meiosis, and the expression of different spermatogenesis-related genes, whereas a subsequent single rLh injection potentiated spermatozoa differentiation. In a second late winter/spring trial corresponding to the sole’s natural prespawning and spawning periods, we tested the effect of repeated rLh injections on the amount and quality of sperm produced by males previously treated with rFsh for 4, 6, 8 or 10 weeks. These latter results showed that the combination of rFsh and rLh treatments could increase sperm production up to 7 times, and slightly improve the motility of the spermatozoa, although a high variability in the response was found. However, sustained administration of rFsh during spawning markedly diminished Leydig cell survival and the steroidogenic potential of the testis. These data suggest that in vivo application of rFsh and rLh is effective at stimulating spermatogenesis and sperm production in Senegalese sole F1 males, setting the basis for the future establishment of recombinant gonadotropin-based hormone therapies to ameliorate reproductive dysfunctions of this species.

Substrate specificity of proteolytic activity in the testes fluid and seminal plasma of the common carp Cyprinus carpio

Substrate specificity in the seminal plasma and testes fluids of the common carp Cyprinus carpio was determined using gelatin, casein, albumin and haemoglobin. Proteolytic profiles of the testes and seminal plasma were compared. Different ranges of pH (5·5-9·5) and temperature (4-37° C) were used during incubations of seminal plasma proteinases. Differences in proteolytic activity between testes and seminal plasma may reflect specific functions of the testes and sperm ducts in semen production. Seminal plasma metalloproteinases were characterized by higher substrate specificity than were serine proteinases. Zymography optimization for seminal plasma indicated that pH 7·5 and 22° C were the optimal conditions for gel incubations.

The Sertoli cell: one hundred fifty years of beauty and plasticity

It has been one and a half centuries since Enrico Sertoli published the seminal discovery of the testicular 'nurse cell', not only a key cell in the testis, but indeed one of the most amazing cells in the vertebrate body. In this review, we begin by examining the three phases of morphological research that have occurred in the study of Sertoli cells, because microscopic anatomy was essentially the only scientific discipline available for about the first 75 years after the discovery. Biochemistry and molecular biology then changed all of biological sciences, including our understanding of the functions of Sertoli cells. Immunology and stem cell biology were not even topics of science in 1865, but they have now become major issues in our appreciation of Sertoli cell's role in spermatogenesis. We end with the universal importance and plasticity of function by comparing Sertoli cells in fish, amphibians, and mammals. In these various classes of vertebrates, Sertoli cells have quite different modes of proliferation and epithelial maintenance, cystic vs. tubular formation, yet accomplish essentially the same function but in strikingly different ways.

Maternally derived trypsin may have multiple functions in the early development of turbot (Scopthalmus maximus)

Trypsin is an important serine protease that is considered to be involved in digestion of protein in teleost fish. Nevertheless, studies on trypsin/trypsinogen in fish embryos are very limited. In this study, the trypsinogen of turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) (tTG) was identified and the expression patterns and activity of trypsinogen/trypsin were investigated. The results showed that the tTG mRNA was evenly distributed in the oocytes and was also expressed along the yolk periphery in early embryos. At later embryo stages and 1 days after hatching (dph), the tTG mRNA concentrated at the alimentary tract and head. Quantitative expression analysis showed that the tTG transcripts decreased after fertilization until the gastrula stage, then increased with the embryo and larvae development. This result was also confirmed by the specific activity analysis of trypsin and in-situ-hybridization (ISH). All of the results indicated that tTG in early embryo stages was maternally derived and expressed by itself after gastrula stages. Additionally, location of tTG mRNA in embryos and larvae was investigated; we considered that trypsin may have multiple functions during the embryo development process. Based on our results regarding trypsinogen in embryos and early development, we concluded that the trypsin/trypsinogen in turbot embryos was inherited from a maternal source and we suggested that trypsin in early development has multiple functions in the process of development.

Trypsin regulates meiotic initiation in the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) by promoting the uptake of taurine into germ cells during spermatogenesis

Meiosis is a unique and critical process in reproduction. Although the key molecular components of meiosis have been identified, the molecular mechanisms regulating the entry into this pathway remain unclear. We previously demonstrated that a progestin in teleost fish, 17alpha, 20beta-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one, is essential for meiotic initiation, and up-regulates taurine synthesis and the production of trypsin in Sertoli cells. In the present study, we found that trypsin promotes the uptake of taurine into germ cells through the up-regulation of solute carrier family 6 (neurotransmitter transporter, taurine), member 6 (Slc6a6) expression. We further found that this up-regulation of the taurine signal is required for Spo11a expression and meiotic initiation.

Identification of differentially expressed genes in American cockroach ovaries and testes by suppression subtractive hybridization and the prediction of its miRNAs

Studies on the cockroach have contributed to our understanding of several important developmental processes, especially those that can be easily studied in the embryo. However, our knowledge on late events such as gonad differentiation in the cockroach is still limited. The major aim of the present study was to identify sex-specific genes between adult female and male Periplaneta americana. Two cDNA libraries were constructed using the suppression subtractive hybridization method; a total of 433 and 599 unique sequences were obtained from the forward library and the reverse library, respectively, by cluster assembly, and sequence alignment of 1,032 expressed sequence tags. The analysis of the differentially expressed gene functions allowed these genes to be categorized into three groups: biological process, molecular function, and cellular component. The differentially expressed genes were suggested to be related to the development of the gonads of P. americana. Twelve differentially expressed genes were randomly selected and verified using relative quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Meanwhile, by adopting a range of filtering criteria, we predicted two potential microRNA sequences for P. americana, pam-miR100-3p and pam-miR7. To confirm the expression of potential microRNAs (miRNAs) in American cockroach, a qRT-PCR approach was also employed. The data presented here offer the insights into the molecular foundation of sex differences in American cockroach, and the first report for the miRNAs in this species. In addition, the results can be used as a reference for unraveling candidate genes associated with the sex and reproduction of cockroaches.

Three testis-specific paralogous serine proteases play different roles in murine spermatogenesis and are involved in germ cell survival during meiosis

Spermatogenesis is a complex process that generates spermatozoa; its molecular mechanisms are not completely understood. Here we focused on the functions of three testis-specific serine proteases: Prss42/Tessp-2, Prss43/Tessp-3, and Prss44/Tessp-4. These protease genes, which constitute a gene cluster on chromosome 9F2-F3, were presumed to be paralogs and were expressed only in the testis. By investigating their mRNA distribution, we found that all three genes were expressed in primary and secondary spermatocytes. However, interestingly, the translated proteins were produced at different locations. Prss42/Tessp-2 was found in the membranes and cytoplasm of secondary spermatocytes and spermatids, whereas Prss43/Tessp-3 was present only in the membranes of spermatocytes and spermatids. Prss44/Tessp-4 was detected in the cytoplasm of spermatocytes and spermatids. To assess the roles of these proteases in spermatogenesis, we used organ culture of mouse testis fragments. Adding antibodies against Prss42/Tessp-2 and Prss43/Tessp-3 resulted in meiotic arrest at the stage when each protease was beginning to be translated. Furthermore, the number of apoptotic cells dramatically increased after the addition of these antibodies. These results strongly suggest that the three paralogous Prss/Tessp proteases play different roles in spermatogenesis and that Prss42/Tessp-2 and Prss43/Tessp-3 are required for germ cell survival during meiosis.

A progestin (17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one) stimulates early stages of spermatogenesis in zebrafish

Recently, evidence has been provided for multiple regulatory functions of progestins during the late mitotic and meiotic phases of spermatogenesis in teleost fish. For example, our previous studies suggested that 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP), potentially via Sertoli cells that express the progesterone receptor (pgr) gene, can contribute to the regulation of zebrafish spermatogenesis. To further our understanding of the function of DHP at early spermatogenetic stages, we investigated in the present study the expression of genes reflecting Sertoli cell function and spermatogenic development in adult zebrafish testis after DHP treatment in tissue culture. Moreover, using an in vivo model of estrogen-mediated down-regulation of androgen production to interrupt adult spermatogenesis, we studied the effects of DHP on estrogen-interrupted spermatogenesis. In this model, DHP treatment doubled the testis weight, and all differentiating germ cell types, such as type B spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes, were abundantly present and incorporated the DNA-synthesis marker (BrdU). Accordingly, transcript levels of germ cell marker genes were up-regulated. Moreover, transcripts of two Sertoli cell-derived genes anti-müllerian hormone (amh) and gonadal soma-derived growth factor (gsdf) were up-regulated, as were three genes of the insulin-like growth factor signaling system, insulin-like growth factor 2b (igf2b), insulin-like growth factor 3 (igf3) and insulin-like growth factor 1b receptor (igf1rb). We further analyzed the relationship between these genes and DHP treatment using a primary zebrafish testis tissue culture system. In the presence of DHP, only igf1rb mRNA levels showed a significant increase among the somatic genes tested, and germ cell marker transcripts were again up-regulated. Taken together, our results show that DHP treatment induced the proliferation of early spermatogonia, their differentiation into late spermatogonia and spermatocytes as well as expression of marker genes for these germ cell stages. DHP-mediated stimulation of spermatogenesis and hence growth of spermatogenic cysts and the associated increase in Sertoli cell number may in part explain the elevated expression of Sertoli cell genes, but our data also suggest an up-regulation of the activity of the Igf signaling system.

Toona sinensis Leaf Aqueous Extract Improves the Functions of Sperm and Testes via Regulating Testicular Proteins in Rats under Oxidative Stress

Toona sinensis leaf (TSL) is commonly used as a vegetable and in spice in Asia. In this study, feeding with aqueous extract of TSL (TSL-A) alleviated oxidative stress and recovered the motility and functions of sperm in rats under oxidative stress. Protein expressions in testes identified by proteomic analysis and verified by Western blot demonstrated that TSL-A not only downregulated the level of glutathione transferase mu6 (antioxidant system), heat shock protein 90 kDa-β (protein misfolding repairing system), cofilin 2 (spermatogenesis), and cyclophilin A (apoptosis) but also upregulated crease3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A synthase 2 (steroidogenesis), heat shock glycoprotein 96, and pancreatic trypsin 1 (sperm-oocyte interaction). These results indicate that TSL-A promotes the functions of sperm and testes via regulating multiple testicular proteins in rats under oxidative stress, suggesting that TSL-A is a valuable functional food supplement to improve functions of sperm and testes for males under oxidative stress.

Cloning, pharmacological characterization and expression analysis of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua, L.) nuclear progesterone receptor

To better understand the role(s) of progesterone in fish spermatogenesis, we cloned the nuclear progesterone receptor (Pgr) of Atlantic cod. The open-reading frame of the cod pgr consists of 2076 bp, coding for a 691-amino acids-long protein that shows the highest similarity with other piscine Pgr proteins. Functional characterization of the receptor expressed in mammalian cells revealed that the cod Pgr exhibited progesterone-specific, dose-dependent induction of reporter gene expression, with 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP), a typical piscine progesterone, showing the highest potency in activating the receptor. During ontogenesis, the pgr mRNA was undetectable in embryo's 24 h after fertilization, but became detectable 4 days after fertilization. During the larval stage, the expression levels increased steadily with the development of the larvae. In adult fish, pgr was predominantly expressed in gonads of both sexes. During the onset of puberty, testicular pgr transcript levels started to increase during rapid spermatogonial proliferation, and peaked when spermiation started. In situ hybridization studies using testis tissue during the rapid growth phase containing all germ cell stages indicated that in cod, pgr mRNA is predominantly located in Sertoli cells that are in contact with proliferating spermatogonia. Taken together, our data suggests that the Pgr is involved in mediating progestagen stimulation of the mitotic expansion of spermatogonia, and in processes associated with the spermiation/spawning period in Atlantic cod.

Red fluorescent scaffold for highly sensitive protease activity probes

We have developed a novel red fluorescent dye, 2Me SiR600 (λ(em)=613 nm), in which the O atom of Rhodamine Green at the 10 position of the xanthene moiety is replaced with a Si atom, as a scaffold for probes to detect protease activity with extremely high S/N ratio. As proof of concept, we designed and synthesized probes for caspase-3 activity (Z-DEVD-SiR600) and leucine aminopeptidase activity (Leu-SiR600). Caspase-3-mediated cleavage of Z-DEVD-SiR600 resulted in a large bathochromic shift (93 nm) of the absorption maximum and a 432-fold fluorescence enhancement.

The synthesis and role of taurine in the Japanese eel testis

In teleost fish, the progestin 17α, 20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) is an essential component of the spermatogenesis pathway. In a series of investigations on the mechanisms underlying progestin-stimulated spermatogenesis, we have found that DHP up-regulates the expression of cysteine dioxygenase1 (CDO1) in the Japanese eel testis. CDO1 is one of the enzymes involved in the taurine biosynthesis pathway. To evaluate whether taurine is synthesized in the eel testis, cysteine sulfinate decarboxylase (CSD), another enzyme involved in taurine synthesis, was isolated from this species. RT-PCR and in vitro eel testicular culture revealed that although CSD was also expressed in eel testis, neither DHP nor other sex steroids affect CSD mRNA expression in a similar manner to CDO1. Using an in vitro eel testicular culture system, we further investigated the effects of DHP on taurine synthesis in the eel testis. HPLC analysis showed that DHP treatment significantly increases the taurine levels in the eel testis. These results suggest that DHP promotes taurine synthesis via the up-regulation of CDO1 mRNA expression during eel spermatogenesis. Furthermore, we observed from our analysis that although taurine does not induce complete spermatogenesis, it promotes spermatogonial DNA synthesis and the expression of Spo11, a meiosis-specific marker. These data thus suggest that taurine augments the effects of sex steroids in the promotion of spermatogonial proliferation and/or meiosis and hence that taurine plays important roles in spermatogenesis.

Cloning, pharmacological characterization, and expression analysis of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) nuclear progesterone receptor

To better understand the role(s) of progestogens during early stages of spermatogenesis, we carried out studies on the nuclear progesterone receptor (Pgr) of the Atlantic salmon. Its open-reading frame shows the highest similarity with other piscine Pgr proteins. When expressed in mammalian cells, salmon Pgr exhibited progestogen-specific, dose-dependent induction of reporter gene expression, with 17α,20β-dihydroxy-4-pregnen-3-one (DHP) showing the highest potency. We then analyzed testicular pgr mRNA and DHP plasma levels in animals during the onset of spermatogenesis, which were exposed to natural light or to constant light, to induce significant differences in testis growth. Grouping of the animals according to their progress through spermatogenesis showed that testicular pgr mRNA levels as well as DHP plasma levels first increased when germ cells had reached the stage of late type B spermatogonia and further increased when entered meiosis, i.e. when spermatocytes were present. However, in situ hybridization studies revealed that pgr mRNA expression was restricted to Sertoli cells, with a strong signal in Sertoli cells contacting type A/early type B spermatogonia, while Sertoli cells contacting larger germ cell clones with further differentiated stages (e.g. late type B spermatogonia) were less intensely/not stained. We conclude that the increase in pgr mRNA levels per pair of testis reflects, at least in part, the increased number of Sertoli cells enveloping type A and early type B spermatogonia. We propose that Sertoli cell-expressed Pgr may mediate DHP-stimulated early steps in spermatogenesis in Atlantic salmon, such as an increase in the number of new spermatogonial cysts.