Testing the Empathizing-Systemizing theory of sex differences and the Extreme Male Brain theory of autism in half a million people

Stress in autism (STREAM): A study protocol on the role of circadian activity, sleep quality and sensory reactivity

Mental health issues are markedly increased in individuals with autism, making it the number one research priority by stakeholders. There is a crucial need to use personalized approaches to understand the underpinnings of mental illness in autism and consequently, to address individual needs. Based on the risk factors identified in typical mental research, we propose the following themes central to mental health issues in autism: sleep difficulties and stress. Indeed, the prevalence of manifold circadian disruptions and sleep difficulties in autism, alongside stress related to sensory overload, forms an integral part of autistic symptomatology. This proof-of-concept study protocol outlines an innovative, individualised approach towards investigating the interrelationships between stress indices, sleep and circadian activation patterns, and sensory sensitivity in autism. Embracing an individualized methodology, we aim to collect 14 days of data per participant from 20 individuals with autism diagnoses and 20 without. Participants' sleep will be monitored using wearable EEG headbands and a sleep diary. Diurnal tracking of heart rate and electrodermal activity through wearables will serve as proxies of stress. Those objective data will be synchronized with subjective experience traces collected throughout the day using the Temporal Experience Tracing (TET) method. TET facilitates the quantification of relevant aspects of individual experience states, such as stress or sensory sensitivities, by providing a continuous multidimensional description of subjective experiences. Capturing the dynamics of subjective experiences phase-locked to neural and physiological proxies both between and within individuals, this approach has the potential to contribute to our understanding of critical issues in autism, including sleep problems, sensory reactivity and stress. The planned strives to provide a pathway towards developing a more nuanced and individualized approach to addressing mental health in autism.

Moral foundations in autistic people and people with systemizing minds

BACKGROUND

Do autistic people share the same moral foundations as typical people? Here we built on two prominent theories in psychology, moral foundations theory and the empathizing-systemizing (E-S) theory, to observe the nature of morality in autistic people and systemizers.

METHODS

In dataset 1, we measured five foundations of moral judgements (Care, Fairness, Loyalty, Authority, and Sanctity) measured by the Moral Foundations Questionnaire (MFQ) in autistic (n = 307) and typical people (n = 415) along with their scores on the Empathy Quotient (EQ) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ). In dataset 2, we measured these same five foundations along with E-S cognitive types (previously referred to as "brain types") in a large sample of typical people (N = 7595).

RESULTS

Autistic people scored the same on Care (i.e., concern for others) as typical people (h1). Their affective empathy (but not their cognitive empathy) scores were positively correlated with Care. Autistic people were more likely to endorse Fairness (i.e., giving people what they are owed, and treating them with justice) over Care (h2). Their systemizing scores were positively correlated with Fairness. Autistic people or those with a systemizing cognitive profile had lower scores on binding foundations: Loyalty, Authority, and Sanctity (h3). Systemizing in typical people was positively correlated with Liberty (i.e., hypervigilance against oppression), which is a sixth moral foundation (h4). Although the majority of people in all five E-S cognitive types self-identified as liberal, with a skew towards empathizing (h5), the percentage of libertarians was highest in systemizing cognitive types (h6). E-S cognitive types accounted for 2 to 3 times more variance for Care than did sex.

LIMITATIONS

Our study is limited by its reliance on self-report measures and a focus on moral judgements rather than behavior or decision-making. Further, only dataset 2 measured political identification, therefore we were unable to assess politics in autistic people.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that some moral foundations in autistic people are similar to those in typical people (despite the difficulties in social interaction that are part of autism), and some are subtly different. These subtle differences vary depending on empathizing and systemizing cognitive types.

Functional connectivity in autism spectrum disorder evaluated using rs-fMRI and DKI

We evaluated functional connectivity (FC) in patients with adult autism spectrum disorder (ASD) using resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and diffusion kurtosis imaging (DKI). We acquired rs-fMRI data from 33 individuals with ASD and 33 healthy controls (HC) and DKI data from 18 individuals with ASD and 17 HC. ASD showed attenuated FC between the right frontal pole (FP) and the bilateral temporal fusiform cortex (TFusC) and enhanced FC between the right thalamus and the bilateral inferior division of lateral occipital cortex, and between the cerebellar vermis and the right occipital fusiform gyrus (OFusG) and the right lingual gyrus, compared with HC. ASD demonstrated increased axial kurtosis (AK) and mean kurtosis (MK) in white matter (WM) tracts, including the right anterior corona radiata (ACR), forceps minor (FM), and right superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF). In ASD, there was also a significant negative correlation between MK and FC between the cerebellar vermis and the right OFusG in the corpus callosum, FM, right SLF and right ACR. Increased DKI metrics might represent neuroinflammation, increased complexity, or disrupted WM tissue integrity that alters long-distance connectivity. Nonetheless, protective or compensating adaptations of inflammation might lead to more abundant glial cells and cytokine activation effectively alleviating the degeneration of neurons, resulting in increased complexity. FC abnormality in ASD observed in rs-fMRI may be attributed to microstructural alterations of the commissural and long-range association tracts in WM as indicated by DKI.

Giftedness and atypical sexual differentiation: enhanced perceptual functioning through estrogen deficiency instead of androgen excess

Syndromic autism spectrum conditions (ASC), such as Klinefelter syndrome, also manifest hypogonadism. Compared to the popular Extreme Male Brain theory, the Enhanced Perceptual Functioning model explains the connection between ASC, savant traits, and giftedness more seamlessly, and their co-emergence with atypical sexual differentiation. Overexcitability of primary sensory inputs generates a relative enhancement of local to global processing of stimuli, hindering the abstraction of communication signals, in contrast to the extraordinary local information processing skills in some individuals. Weaker inhibitory function through gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors and the atypicality of synapse formation lead to this difference, and the formation of unique neural circuits that process external information. Additionally, deficiency in monitoring inner sensory information leads to alexithymia (inability to distinguish one's own emotions), which can be caused by hypoactivity of estrogen and oxytocin in the interoceptive neural circuits, comprising the anterior insular and cingulate gyri. These areas are also part of the Salience Network, which switches between the Central Executive Network for external tasks and the Default Mode Network for self-referential mind wandering. Exploring the possibility that estrogen deficiency since early development interrupts GABA shift, causing sensory processing atypicality, it helps to evaluate the co-occurrence of ASC with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, and schizophrenia based on phenotypic and physiological bases. It also provides clues for understanding the common underpinnings of these neurodevelopmental disorders and gifted populations.

Camouflaging, not sensory processing or autistic identity, predicts eating disorder symptoms in autistic adults

LAY ABSTRACT

This study aimed to explore the impact of Autistic identity (i.e. feeling like you belong to the Autistic community), sensory profiles (e.g. being over or under responsive to sensations) and camouflaging behaviours (i.e. masking) on eating disorder symptoms in Autistic adults. 180 Autistic people were recruited from the community and NHS. The Autistic people completed online questionnaires measuring Autistic identity, sensory profiles, camouflaging behaviours, autistic traits and eating disorder symptoms. The analysis showed that higher levels of camouflaging behaviour predicted higher levels of eating disorder symptoms. Sensory profiles were related to but did not predict eating disorder symptoms and there was no relationship between level of Autistic identity and eating disorder symptoms. This shows that camouflaging is the most important predictor of eating disorder symptoms in Autistic people, and warrants further exploration.

In the mind of Narcissus: The mediating role of emotional regulation in the emergence of distorted cognitions

INTRODUCTION

Currently narcissism is considered one of the most widespread phenomenon. As a consequence, its different types (grandiose and vulnerable narcissism) have been investigated from several different perspectives. The present research attempts to explore the differences between the two types of narcissism and their links with different cognitive components that are connected to these personality traits. The primary aim of our study is to investigate the possible connections among maladaptive schemas (entitlement, vulnerability, emotional deprivation) and cognitive evaluation systems (self-esteem, systemizing-empathizing) and narcissism.

METHODS

We applied both correlation and path analyses to explore the hypothesized associations.

RESULTS

The results show that early maladaptive schemas are strongly associated with narcissism and the empathizing system. The different subtypes of narcissism have different connections with self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

Our results show that the two types of narcissism have different manifestations and connections with the early maladaptive schemas, Emphatizing Quotient, and self-esteem. Our empirical results serve as important and empirically supported inputs to counseling and clinical practice.

Sex and Gender in Population Neuroscience

To understand psychiatric and neurological disorders and the structural and functional properties of the human brain, it is essential to consider the roles of sex and gender. In this chapter, I first define sex and gender and describe studies of sex differences in non-human animals. In humans, I describe the sex differences in behavioral and clinical phenotypes and neuroimaging-derived phenotypes, including whole-brain measures, regional subcortical and cortical measures, and structural and functional connectivity. Although structural whole-brain sex differences are large, regional effects (adjusting for whole-brain volumes) are typically much smaller and often fail to replicate. Nevertheless, while an individual neuroimaging feature may have a small effect size, aggregating them in a "maleness/femaleness" score or machine learning multivariate paradigm may prove to be predictive and informative of sex- and gender-related traits. Finally, I conclude by summarizing emerging investigations of gender norms and gender identity and provide methodological recommendations to incorporate sex and gender in population neuroscience research.

Changing perspectives on autism: Overlapping contributions of evolutionary psychiatry and the neurodiversity movement

Perspectives on autism and psychiatric conditions are affected by a mix of scientific and social influences. Evolutionary psychiatry (EP) and the neurodiversity movement are emerging paradigms that reflect these distinct influences, with the former grounded in scientific theory and the latter driven by political and social principles. Despite their separate foundations, there is a significant overlap between EP and neurodiversity that has not been explored. Specifically, both paradigms reframe disorders as natural cognitive differences rather than disease; expand the concept of "normal" beyond that implied in modern psychiatry; focus on relative strengths; recognize that modern environments disadvantage certain individuals to cause functional impairment; emphasize cognitive variation being socially accommodated and integrated rather than treated or cured; and can help reduce stigmatization. However, in other ways, they are distinct and sometimes in conflict. EP emphasizes scientific explanation, defines "dysfunction" in objective terms, and differentiates heterogenous cases based on underlying causes (e.g. autism due to de novo genetic mutations). The neurodiversity movement emphasizes social action, removes barriers to inclusion, promotes inclusive language, and allows unrestricted identification as neurodivergent. By comparing and contrasting these two approaches, we find that EP can, to some extent, support the goals of neurodiversity. In particular, EP perspectives could be convincing to groups more responsive to scientific evidence and help achieve a middle ground between neurodiversity advocates and critics of the movement.

The Relationship Between Social Skills and Sensory Profile, Emotion Regulation, and Empathizing/Systemizing in Adolescents on the Autism Spectrum

This study aims to evaluate the relationship between social skills and sensory features, emotion regulation, and empathy in adolescents on the autism spectrum. One hundred and twenty-three adolescents were included in the study (50 autistic, 73 typically developing-TD adolescents). The participants filled out the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP) and Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Parents of the participants completed the Child Empathy and Systemizing Quotient (EQ-C/SQ-C) and Autism-Social Skills Profile (ASSP) scales. Social reciprocity, social participation/avoidance, ASSP total scores, empathy and systemizing scores were lower, and detrimental social behaviors, low registration sensory profile scores were higher in the autism spectrum group. While a difference between genders was observed in sensory sensitivity, sensation avoiding, low registration quadrants and empathy scores, no gender and group interaction was found in any domain. Social skill total scores were correlated to sensation seeking and low registration sensory features, empathy, systemizing, and reappraisal emotion regulation scores. A hierarchical multiple linear regression analysis was conducted controlling for group and gender, sensation seeking (p = .032, β = 0.138), low registration (p = .012, β = - 0.215) of the AASP, and empathy (p < .001, β = 0.555) and systemizing (p = .033, β = 0.138) scores of the EQ/SQ-C was found to significantly predict social skill total scores. Although emotional regulation strategies may play a role, sensory processing features and empathy and systemizing skills seem to be the more significant contributors to social skills during adolescence. Interventions targeting sensory processing and especially improving empathy and systematization skills may positively affect social skills in adolescents on the autism spectrum.

Measuring the Autistic Women's Experience (AWE)

We developed a Dutch questionnaire called the Autistic Women's Experience (AWE) and compared its psychometric properties to the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ). Whilst attenuated gender differences on the AQ have been widely replicated, this instrument may not fully capture the unique experience of autistic women. The AWE was co-developed with autistic women to include items that reflect autistic women's experience. We investigated the AWE (49 items) and compared it with the AQ (50 items) in Dutch autistic individuals (N = 153, n = 85 women) and in the general population (N = 489, n = 246 women) aged 16+. Both the AQ and AWE had excellent internal consistency and were highly and equally predictive of autism in both women and men. Whilst there was a gender difference on the AQ among non-autistic people (men > women), there was no gender difference among autistic people, confirming all earlier studies. No gender differences were detected on the AWE overall scale, yet subtle gender differences were observed on the subscales. We conclude that the AQ is valid for both genders, but the AWE provides an additional useful perspective on the characteristics of autistic women. The AWE needs further validation in independent samples using techniques that allow for testing gender biases, as well as a confirmatory factor analysis in a larger sample.

Dissecting the autism-associated 16p11.2 locus identifies multiple drivers in neuroanatomical phenotypes and unveils a male-specific role for the major vault protein

BACKGROUND

Using mouse genetic studies and systematic assessments of brain neuroanatomical phenotypes, we set out to identify which of the 30 genes causes brain defects at the autism-associated 16p11.2 locus.

RESULTS

We show that multiple genes mapping to this region interact to regulate brain anatomy, with female mice exhibiting far fewer brain neuroanatomical phenotypes. In male mice, among the 13 genes associated with neuroanatomical defects (Mvp, Ppp4c, Zg16, Taok2, Slx1b, Maz, Fam57b, Bola2, Tbx6, Qprt, Spn, Hirip3, and Doc2a), Mvp is the top driver implicated in phenotypes pertaining to brain, cortex, hippocampus, ventricles, and corpus callosum sizes. The major vault protein (MVP), the main component of the vault organelle, is a conserved protein found in eukaryotic cells, yet its function is not understood. Here, we find MVP expression highly specific to the limbic system and show that Mvp regulates neuronal morphology, postnatally and specifically in males. We also recapitulate a previously reported genetic interaction and show that Mvp+/-;Mapk3+/- mice exhibit behavioral deficits, notably decreased anxiety-like traits detected in the elevated plus maze and open field paradigms.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study highlights multiple gene drivers in neuroanatomical phenotypes, interacting with each other through complex relationships. It also provides the first evidence for the involvement of the major vault protein in the regulation of brain size and neuroanatomy, specifically in male mice.

Investigating Sex-Based Neural Differences in Autism and Their Extended Reality Intervention Implications

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) affects millions of individuals worldwide, and there is growing interest in the use of extended reality (XR) technologies for intervention. Despite the promising potential of XR interventions, there remain gaps in our understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms underlying ASD, particularly in relation to sex-based differences. This scoping review synthesizes the current research on brain activity patterns in ASD, emphasizing the implications for XR interventions and neurofeedback therapy. We examine the brain regions commonly affected by ASD, the potential benefits and drawbacks of XR technologies, and the implications of sex-specific differences for designing effective interventions. Our findings underscore the need for ongoing research into the neurobiological underpinnings of ASD and sex-based differences, as well as the importance of developing tailored interventions that consider the unique needs and experiences of autistic individuals.

Similar overall expression, but different profiles, of autistic traits, sensory processing, and mental health between young adult males and females

Recent trends suggest that autism is more common in females than traditionally held. Additionally, some argue that females express autistic traits differently than males. Dimensional views of autism could shed light on these issues, especially with regards to understudied behavioral areas, such as sensory processing. We examined autistic traits, sensory processing, anxiety, and related behaviors in a large sample of neurotypical young adult males and females (n = 1,122; 556 female; ages 19-26). Participants completed an online survey containing questionnaires related to the above. Between groups statistical analyses, as well as within groups correlations and mediation analyses containing these constructs were then computed. We also carried out a cluster analysis to establish groups with behavioral similarities and estimate within-cluster male/female ratios. Results showed modest differences in the overall expression of autistic traits and sensory processing, if any, between males and females. Conversely, more detailed examination of survey subtests and mediation analyses revealed differing profiles between these groups. Cluster analysis uncovered a group comprised of both males (69.8%) and females (30.2%) who exhibited elevated degrees of autism-related behaviors, suggesting a higher proportion of females than would be predicted by traditional ratios. Taken together, these findings suggest that males and females may not differ as much as previously thought in their general levels of autistic traits or sensory processing, but may present with distinct profiles of such behaviors. These novel results add to our understanding of autistic traits in females and have the potential to positively influence diagnostic and support practices.

Neural underpinnings of processing combinatorial unstated meaning and the influence of individual cognitive style

We investigated the neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the processing of combinatorial unstated meaning. Sentences like "Charles jumped for 5 minutes." engender an iterative meaning that is not explicitly stated but enriched by comprehenders beyond simple composition. Comprehending unstated meaning involves meaning contextualization-integrative meaning search in sentential-discourse context. Meanwhile, people differ in how they process information with varying context sensitivity. We hypothesized that unstated meaning processing would vary with individual socio-cognitive propensity indexed by the Autism-Spectrum Quotient (AQ), accompanied by differential cortical engagements. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we examined the processing of sentences with unstated iterative meaning in typically-developed individuals and found an engagement of the fronto-parietal network, including the left pars triangularis (L.PT), right intraparietal (R.IPS), and parieto-occipital sulcus (R.POS). We suggest that the L.PT subserves a contextual meaning search, while the R.IPS/POS supports enriching unstated iteration in consideration of event durations and interval lengths. Moreover, the activation level of these regions negatively correlated with AQ. Higher AQ ties to lower L.PT activation, likely reflecting weaker context sensitivity, along with lower IPS activation, likely reflecting weaker computation of events' numerical-temporal specifications. These suggest that the L.PT and R.IPS/POS support the processing of combinatorial unstated meaning, with the activation level modulated by individual cognitive styles.

Autism, thy name is man: Exploring implicit and explicit gender bias in autism perceptions

Males are around three times more likely to possess an autism diagnosis than females. For years this was explained by accounts that considered the male gender more compatible with the autistic phenotype. However, new research suggests that a lack of understanding and recognition of the female autistic phenotype, and a predisposition to associate males with autistic traits, could lead to structural inequalities that hinder the identification of autistic females. To explore how autism and gender are more widely perceived, the present study tested implicit and explicit associations between autism and binary gender using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and the Autism Quotient (AQ) presented alongside a male or female vignette. A significant association was found on the IAT, identifying an implicit bias towards males and autistic traits. The vignette AQ pairing also revealed some specific items perceived as explicitly male traits, while only reverse-scored items were perceived as female. These findings suggest that current perceptions and even metrics of autism are skewed towards males, which may hinder the identification and understanding of the female autistic phenotype.

Personality, dietary identity, mental and sleep health in vegans and vegetarians: A preliminary cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Plant-based diets have gained popularity over the past decade. However, research regarding mental and sleep health benefits of following plant-based diets are conflicting. As there are associations between mental/sleep health and various personality traits, and personality may differ between individuals who follow different diets, in this preliminary study, we examined the associations between mental and sleep health and (i) personality and (ii) dietary identity in individuals who follow vegan and vegetarian diets.

Methods

Cross-sectional data on sociodemographic, personality traits, dietarian identity, overall mental health, depression, anxiety, stress, and sleep quality were collected from 57 vegan/vegetarian participants between the ages of 18-40.

Results

After controlling for various sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, linear regression models revealed that (i) higher dietarian private regard was a significant predictor of better overall mental health, (ii) lower levels of extraversion and higher levels of empathy predicted depression, (iii) higher levels of neuroticism and empathy predicted anxiety, (iv) higher levels of neuroticism, dietarian centrality, and neuroticism × centrality predicted stress, (v) higher levels of conscientiousness, lower levels of dietarian centrality, but higher levels of personal motivation and dietary strictness, as well as conscientiousness × centrality, conscientiousness × personal motivation, and conscientiousness × strictness predicted better sleep quality.

Conclusions

These preliminary findings suggest that not only personality traits, but also dietary identity was indeed related to mental and sleep health in individuals who follow plant-based diets.

Internal Consistency of the Serbian Translation of the Stanford Social Dimensions Scale and Association to Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire Scores in Male and Female Individuals on the Autism Spectrum and Non-autistic Individuals

We aimed to evaluate the internal consistency of Stanford Social Dimensions Scale (SSDS) translated to Serbian and to test it against the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The sample consisted of 200 patients (32% ASD) of the Institute of Mental Health in Belgrade, Serbia (68 females, 132 males, M_age=9.61, SD_age=4.06). Internal consistency coefficients were within good/acceptable range for Social Motivation, Affiliation, Recognition and Unusual Approach subscales and below acceptable for Expressive Social Communication subscale. The non-autistic group scored higher on all subscales compared to the ASD group. All SSDS subscales positively correlated with SDQ Prosocial Behaviors scale. The SSDS is a valuable instrument for accessing sociobehavioral phenotype in both individuals on the autism spectrum and non-autistic individuals.

Exploratory preferences explain the human fascination for imaginary worlds in fictional stories

Imaginary worlds are present and often central in many of the most culturally successful modern narrative fictions, be it in novels (e.g., Harry Potter), movies (e.g., Star Wars), video games (e.g., The Legend of Zelda), graphic novels (e.g., One Piece) and TV series (e.g., Game of Thrones). We propose that imaginary worlds are popular because they activate exploratory preferences that evolved to help us navigate the real world and find new fitness-relevant information. Therefore, we hypothesize that the attraction to imaginary worlds is intrinsically linked to the desire to explore novel environments and that both are influenced by the same underlying factors. Notably, the inter-individual and cross-cultural variability of the preference for imaginary worlds should follow the inter-individual and cross-cultural variability of exploratory preferences (with the personality trait Openness-to-experience, age, sex, and ecological conditions). We test these predictions with both experimental and computational methods. For experimental tests, we run a pre-registered online experiment about movie preferences (N = 230). For computational tests, we leverage two large cultural datasets, namely the Internet Movie Database (N = 9424 movies) and the Movie Personality Dataset (N = 3.5 million participants), and use machine-learning algorithms (i.e., random forest and topic modeling). In all, consistent with how the human preference for spatial exploration adaptively varies, we provide empirical evidence that imaginary worlds appeal more to more explorative people, people higher in Openness-to-experience, younger individuals, males, and individuals living in more affluent environments. We discuss the implications of these findings for our understanding of the cultural evolution of narrative fiction and, more broadly, the evolution of human exploratory preferences.

Exploring potential impacts of pregnancy-related maternal immune activation and extracellular vesicles on immune alterations observed in autism spectrum disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders usually observed in early life, with impacts on behavioral and social skills. Incidence of ASD has been dramatically increasing worldwide, possibly due to increase in awareness/diagnosis as well as to genetic and environmental triggers. Currently, it is estimated that ∼1% of the world population presents ASD symptoms. In addition to its genetic background, environmental and immune-related factors also influence the ASD etiology. In this context, maternal immune activation (MIA) has recently been suggested as a component potentially involved in ASD development. In addition, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are abundant at the maternal-fetal interface and are actively involved in the immunoregulation required for a healthy pregnancy. Considering that alterations in concentration and content of EVs have also been associated with ASD, this article raises a debate about the potential roles of EVs in the processes surrounding MIA. This represents the major differential of the present review compared to other ASD studies. To support the suggested correlations and hypotheses, findings regarding the roles of EVs during pregnancy and potential influences on ASD are discussed, along with a review and update concerning the participation of infections, cytokine unbalances, overweight and obesity, maternal anti-fetal brain antibodies, maternal fever, gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, labor type and microbiota unbalances in MIA and ASD.

Predicting child aggression: The role of parent and child endorsement of reactive aggression across 13 cultural groups in 9 nations

Parent and child endorsement of reactive aggression both predict the emergence of child aggression, but they are rarely studied together and in longitudinal contexts. The present study does so by examining the unique predictive effects of parent and child endorsement of reactive aggression at age 8 on child aggression at age 9 in 1456 children from 13 cultural groups in 9 nations. Multiple group structural equation models explored whether age 8 child and parent endorsement of reactive aggression predicted subsequent age 9 child endorsement of reactive aggression and child aggression, after accounting for prior child aggression and parent education. Results revealed that greater parent endorsement of reactive aggression at age 8 predicted greater child endorsement of aggression at age 9, that greater parent endorsement of reactive aggression at age 8 uniquely predicted greater aggression at age 9 in girls, and that greater child endorsement of reactive aggression at age 8 uniquely predicted greater aggression at age 9 in boys. All three of these associations emerged across cultures. Implications of, and explanations for, study findings are discussed.

Autism spectrum disorder research: knowledge mapping of progress and focus between 2011 and 2022

Background

In recent years, a large number of studies have focused on autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The present study used bibliometric analysis to describe the state of ASD research over the past decade and identify its trends and research fronts.

Methods

Studies on ASD published from 2011 to 2022 were obtained from the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). Bibliometrix, CiteSpace, and VOSviewer were used for bibliometric analysis.

Results

A total of 57,108 studies were included in the systematic search, and articles were published in more than 6,000 journals. The number of publications increased by 181.7% (2,623 in 2011 and 7,390 in 2021). The articles in the field of genetics are widely cited in immunology, clinical research, and psychological research. Keywords co-occurrence analysis revealed that "causative mechanisms," "clinical features," and "intervention features" were the three main clusters of ASD research. Over the past decade, genetic variants associated with ASD have gained increasing attention, and immune dysbiosis and gut microbiota are the new development frontiers after 2015.

Conclusion

This study uses a bibliometric approach to visualize and quantitatively describe autism research over the last decade. Neuroscience, genetics, brain imaging studies, and gut microbiome studies improve our understanding of autism. In addition, the microbe-gut-brain axis may be an exciting research direction for ASD in the future. Therefore, through visual analysis of autism literature, this paper shows the development process, research hotspots, and cutting-edge trends in this field to provide theoretical reference for the development of autism in the future.

Mini-puberty testosterone and infant autistic traits

Background

Levels of steroid hormones in the first three months of life, a period referred to as 'mini-puberty', are one of the earliest physiological differences between typical males and females postnatally. Autistic traits also show consistent typical sex differences in later infancy, after the 18th month of life. Previous studies have shown prenatal testosterone is associated with later levels of autistic traits. Studies testing if postnatal testosterone levels are associated with autistic traits have reported null results. No studies to date have investigated mini-puberty longitudinally or tested for interactions with baseline sex differences or familial likelihood of autism.

Methods

The 'Cambridge Human Imaging and Longitudinal Development Study' (CHILD) is a prospective enriched cohort study in Cambridge, UK. It includes physiological measurements in early infancy, as well as neurodevelopmental follow-ups over the first two years of life. A subset of the cohort also includes children with a family history of autism (a diagnosed parent or sibling). Salivary testosterone levels were assessed at two time-points, just after the 2nd and 6th month of life. Autistic traits were measured using the Quantitative Checklist of Autism in Toddlers (Q-CHAT) when the children were 18 months of age.

Results

Salivary testosterone levels were significantly higher during 'mini-puberty' in the 2nd and 3rd month of life, compared to after the 6th month of life, in both males and females. There was no significant sex difference at either time-point. Log-transformed testosterone levels were not associated with autistic traits (Q-CHAT). There was no interaction effect with infant sex, autism family history or baseline testosterone levels after mini-puberty (at >6 months of age).

Conclusion

Both male and female infants have elevated levels of salivary testosterone during mini-puberty but in this relatively small sample this was not associated with their later autistic traits at 18 months or their family history of autism. This suggests that prenatal rather than postnatal testosterone levels are more relevant for understanding the causes of autism. Future studies should test these relationships in larger samples.

Body social models of disability: Examining enactive and ecological approaches

Autistic philosopher and neurodiversity proponent Robert Chapman (2021) argues that disability may be best understood by utilizing an ecological functional model where the focus is on the intersection and overlaps between relational contributions to collectives and group functioning with individual functionality. This presents an alternative to both social-relational models of disability advocated by other neurodiversity proponents and the orthodox medical model of disability. While enactivists such as Michelle Maiese and Juan Toro, Julian Kiverstein and Erik Rietveld have also offered relational models of disability that challenge the orthodox medical model, I argue that unlike the ecological functional model, these enactivist models remain problematically committed to an individualist methodology. Drawing on what Miriam Kyselo has labeled the body social problem, I show that the enactivist models not only face theoretical issues, but also practical issues in terms of their recommended intervention strategies for disability. I argue that for these reasons, if enactivists want a relational model of disability, then they should adopt both a neurodiversity paradigm approach and Chapman’s ecological functional model.

Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions

Health-related conditions often differ qualitatively or quantitatively between individuals of different birth-assigned sexes and gender identities, and/or with different gendered experiences, requiring tailored care. Studying the moderating and mediating effects of sex-related and gender-related factors on impairment, disability, wellbeing and health is of paramount importance especially for neurodivergent individuals, who are diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions with uneven sex/gender distributions. Researchers have become aware of the myriad influences that sex-related and gender-related variables have on the manifestations of neurodevelopmental conditions, and contemporary work has begun to investigate the mechanisms through which these effects are mediated. Here we describe topical concepts of sex and gender science, summarize current knowledge, and discuss research and clinical challenges related to autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other neurodevelopmental conditions. We consider sex and gender in the context of epidemiology, behavioural phenotypes, neurobiology, genetics, endocrinology and neighbouring disciplines. The available evidence supports the view that sex and gender are important contributors to the biological and behavioural variability in neurodevelopmental conditions. Methodological caveats such as frequent conflation of sex and gender constructs, inappropriate measurement of these constructs and under-representation of specific demographic groups (for example, female and gender minority individuals and people with intellectual disabilities) limit the translational potential of research so far. Future research and clinical implementation should integrate sex and gender into next-generation diagnostics, mechanistic investigations and support practices.

Steroid hormone pathways, vitamin D and autism: a systematic review

The origins of the male preponderance in autism incidence remain unclear. The idea that perinatal factors associated with sex differentiation (e.g., steroid hormone pathways) may increase the possibility of the emergence of autism is complementary to the hypothesis that female individuals are intrinsically less likely to develop autism. Empirical evidence for the mechanistic roles of in utero steroid hormones in autism etiology is accumulating but inconsistent. We conducted a systematic review using rigorous criteria for the measurements of steroids and vitamin D exposure, to summarize the potential contributing roles of prenatal and early postnatal steroids and vitamin D alterations to the emergence of autism. We searched PubMed, PsychInfo, Scopus, and included 22 studies for qualitative synthesis. Among them, six studies examined the association of autism diagnoses in offspring and levels of steroids and precursor steroid hormones in the fetal environment, eight studies examined the associations between autism and maternal and fetal blood vitamin D levels during pregnancy and at birth, and eight studies examined the associations between offspring autism diagnoses and maternal hyperandrogenemia diagnosed before pregnancy. We identified promising and complex results regarding the relations between steroid metabolism and autism. The interpretation of findings was limited by the mostly observational study designs, insufficient investigation of the effects of offspring sex, confounders and their cumulative effects on the development of the child, and unclear impact of the timing of steroids exposure and their effects on fetal neurodevelopment.

Are women more empathetic than men? Questionnaire and EEG estimations of sex/gender differences in empathic ability

The debate regarding whether women are more empathetic than men has broad scientific, social and clinical implications. However, previous independent questionnaires and brain imaging studies that tested different samples reported inconsistent results regarding sex/gender differences in empathic ability. We conducted three studies to investigate sex/gender differences in empathic ability using large-sample questionnaires and electroencephalography (EEG) measures. We showed that the estimation of empathic ability using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index questionnaire showed higher rating scores in women than in men in all studies. However, our EEG measures of empathy, indexed by both phase-locked and non-phased-locked neural responses to others' painful (vs neutral) facial expressions, support a null hypothesis of the sex/gender difference in empathic ability. In addition, we showed evidence that priming social expectations of women and men's ability to share and care about others' feelings eliminated the sex/gender difference in questionnaire measures of empathic ability. Our large-sample EEG results challenge the notion of women's superiority in empathy that is built based on subjective questionnaire measures that are sensitive to social desirability. Our findings indicate that whether the notion of women's superiority in empathic ability reflects a biological/social difference between women and men or a gender-role stereotype remains an open question.

Attention to faces in images is associated with personality and psychopathology

Humans show a robust tendency to look at faces in images, but also differ consistently in the strength of this attentional preference. Previous research remained inconclusive as to how a stronger face preference may be indicative of an individual's personality or clinical characteristics. Here we investigated face preferences in 120 participants (primarily drawn from a student population) who freely viewed photos in an internet browser showing a person in the context of a visually rich environment while attention was assessed using a cursor-based technique. Participants differed consistently in the strength of their face preference across images. A stronger preference for faces was correlated positively with openness to experience, extraversion, agreeableness and empathizing and was correlated negatively with social anxiety, depression levels and alexithymia. Trait measures were linked through a strong common factor which was additionally correlated with face preference. We conclude that face preferences may be linked to personality traits and to psychopathology but that an attribution to a specific facet of psychopathology may not be warranted. Future research should investigate links between face preferences and personality features in more diverse samples and across differing social situations.

An auditory processing advantage enables communication in less complex social settings: Signs of an extreme female brain in children and adolescents being assessed for Autism Spectrum Disorders

Background

The underlying factors of the male predominance in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are largely unknown, although a female advantage in social communication has been pointed out as a potential factor. Recently, attention has been given to ASD as a sensory processing disorder, focusing on the audio-visual temporal processing paramount for the development of communication. In ASD, a deviant audio-visual processing has been noted, resulting in difficulties interpreting multisensory information. Typically Developed (TD) females have shown an enhanced language processing in unisensory situations compared to multisensory situations. We aim to find out whether such an advantage also can be seen in girls within the ASD population, and if so, is it related to social communication skills?

Method

Forty children (IQ > 85), 20 females (mean age = 13.90 years, SD = 2.34) and 20 males (mean age = 12.15 years, SD = 2.83) triaged for an ASD assessment were recruited from a child and youth psychiatric clinic in Sweden. Using The Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS) we looked at associations with child performance on the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test (IVA-2).

Results

An auditory advantage in the female group was associated with less rated problems in social communications in unisensory processing whereas in multisensory processing an auditory dominance was associated with more rated problems in Social Awareness. In the male group, a visual dominance was associated with more rated problems in Social Rigidity.

Conclusion

A female unisensory processing advantage in ASD could very well be explaining the male domination in ASD. However, the social difficulties related to multisensory processing indicate that ASD females might be struggling as hard as males in more complex settings. Implications on the assessment procedure are discussed.

Sex and age differences in "theory of mind" across 57 countries using the English version of the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test

The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test (Eyes Test) is a widely used assessment of "theory of mind." The NIMH Research Domain Criteria recommends it as one of two tests for "understanding mental states." Previous studies have demonstrated an on-average female advantage on the Eyes Test. However, it is unknown whether this female advantage exists across the lifespan and across a large number of countries. Thus, we tested sex and age differences using the English version of the Eyes Test in adolescents and adults across 57 countries. We also tested for associations with sociodemographic and cognitive/personality factors. We leveraged one discovery dataset (N = 305,726) and three validation datasets (Ns = 642; 5,284; and 1,087). The results show that: i) there is a replicable on-average female advantage in performance on the Eyes Test; ii) performance increases through adolescence and shallowly declines across adulthood; iii) the on-average female advantage is evident across the lifespan; iv) there is a significant on-average female advantage in 36 out of 57 countries; v) there is a significant on-average female advantage on translated (non-English) versions of the Eyes Test in 12 out of 16 countries, as confirmed by a systematic review; vi) D-scores, or empathizing-systemizing, predict Eyes Test performance above and beyond sex differences; and vii) the female advantage is negatively linked to "prosperity" and "autonomy," and positively linked to "collectivism," as confirmed by exploratory country-level analyses. We conclude that the on-average female advantage on the Eyes Test is observed across ages and most countries.

The Link Between Autism and Sex-Related Neuroanatomy, and Associated Cognition and Gene Expression

OBJECTIVE

The male preponderance in prevalence of autism is among the most pronounced sex ratios across neurodevelopmental conditions. The authors sought to elucidate the relationship between autism and typical sex-differential neuroanatomy, cognition, and related gene expression.

METHODS

Using a novel deep learning framework trained to predict biological sex based on T₁-weighted structural brain images, the authors compared sex prediction model performance across neurotypical and autistic males and females. Multiple large-scale data sets comprising T₁-weighted MRI data were employed at four stages of the analysis pipeline: 1) pretraining, with the UK Biobank sample (>10,000 individuals); 2) transfer learning and validation, with the ABIDE data sets (1,412 individuals, 5-56 years of age); 3) test and discovery, with the EU-AIMS/AIMS-2-TRIALS LEAP data set (681 individuals, 6-30 years of age); and 4) specificity, with the NeuroIMAGE and ADHD200 data sets (887 individuals, 7-26 years of age).

RESULTS

Across both ABIDE and LEAP, features positively predictive of neurotypical males were on average significantly more predictive of autistic males (ABIDE: Cohen's d=0.48; LEAP: Cohen's d=1.34). Features positively predictive of neurotypical females were on average significantly less predictive of autistic females (ABIDE: Cohen's d=1.25; LEAP: Cohen's d=1.29). These differences in sex prediction accuracy in autism were not observed in individuals with ADHD. In autistic females, the male-shifted neurophenotype was further associated with poorer social sensitivity and emotional face processing while also associated with gene expression patterns of midgestational cell types.

CONCLUSIONS

The results demonstrate an increased resemblance in both autistic male and female individuals' neuroanatomy with male-characteristic patterns associated with typically sex-differential social cognitive features and related gene expression patterns. The findings hold promise for future research aimed at refining the quest for biological mechanisms underpinning the etiology of autism.

Cerebellum and neurodevelopmental disorders: RORα is a unifying force

Errors of cerebellar development are increasingly acknowledged as risk factors for neuro-developmental disorders (NDDs), such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and schizophrenia. Evidence has been assembled from cerebellar abnormalities in autistic patients, as well as a range of genetic mutations identified in human patients that affect the cerebellar circuit, particularly Purkinje cells, and are associated with deficits of motor function, learning and social behavior; traits that are commonly associated with autism and schizophrenia. However, NDDs, such as ASD and schizophrenia, also include systemic abnormalities, e.g., chronic inflammation, abnormal circadian rhythms etc., which cannot be explained by lesions that only affect the cerebellum. Here we bring together phenotypic, circuit and structural evidence supporting the contribution of cerebellar dysfunction in NDDs and propose that the transcription factor Retinoid-related Orphan Receptor alpha (RORα) provides the missing link underlying both cerebellar and systemic abnormalities observed in NDDs. We present the role of RORα in cerebellar development and how the abnormalities that occur due to RORα deficiency could explain NDD symptoms. We then focus on how RORα is linked to NDDs, particularly ASD and schizophrenia, and how its diverse extra-cerebral actions can explain the systemic components of these diseases. Finally, we discuss how RORα-deficiency is likely a driving force for NDDs through its induction of cerebellar developmental defects, which in turn affect downstream targets, and its regulation of extracerebral systems, such as inflammation, circadian rhythms, and sexual dimorphism.

Specific Global-Local Visual Processing Abilities Mediate the Influence of Non-social Autistic-like Traits on Mental Rotation

Inconsistent data are available on mental rotation performance in neurotypicals with high autistic-like traits. Here, we tested whether global-local visual processing abilities mediate the influence of specific autistic-like trait domains (social skill, attention switching, attention-to-detail, communication, and imagination) on mental rotation. Neurotypical participants (N = 128) underwent an assessment of autistic-like traits, a flanker task with hierarchical stimuli, and a mental rotation task. Path analysis showed that Reaction Times on the incongruent/local condition of the flanker task mediated the relationship between attention-to-detail and mental rotation accuracy. These findings indicate that a better capacity of ignoring incongruent global information to identify local information (reduced global interference) in persons with high non-social autistic-like traits, as attention-to-detail, facilitates mental rotation performance.

Can the "female protective effect" liability threshold model explain sex differences in autism spectrum disorder?

Male sex is a strong risk factor for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The leading theory for a "female protective effect" (FPE) envisions males and females have "differing thresholds" under a "liability threshold model" (DT-LTM). Specifically, this model posits that females require either a greater number or larger magnitude of risk factors (i.e., greater liability) to manifest ASD, which is supported by the finding that a greater proportion of females with ASD have highly penetrant genetic mutations. Herein, we derive testable hypotheses from the DT-LTM for ASD, investigating heritability, familial recurrence, correlation between ASD penetrance and sex ratio, population traits, clinical features, the stability of the sex ratio across diagnostic changes, and highlight other key prerequisites. Our findings reveal that several key predictions of the DT-LTM are not supported by current data, requiring us to establish a different conceptual framework for evaluating alternate models that explain sex differences in ASD.

Investigating the Relationship between Facial Mimicry and Empathy

Facial expressions play a key role in interpersonal communication when it comes to negotiating our emotions and intentions, as well as interpreting those of others. Research has shown that we can connect to other people better when we exhibit signs of empathy and facial mimicry. However, the relationship between empathy and facial mimicry is still debated. Among the factors contributing to the difference in results across existing studies is the use of different instruments for measuring both empathy and facial mimicry, as well as often ignoring the differences across various demographic groups. This study first looks at the differences in the empathetic abilities of people across different demographic groups based on gender, ethnicity and age. The empathetic ability is measured based on the Empathy Quotient, capturing a balanced representation of both emotional and cognitive empathy. Using statistical and machine learning methods, this study then investigates the correlation between the empathetic ability and facial mimicry of subjects in response to images portraying different emotions displayed on a computer screen. Unlike the existing studies measuring facial mimicry using electromyography, this study employs a technology detecting facial expressions based on video capture and deep learning. This choice was made in the context of increased online communication during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of this study confirm the previously reported difference in the empathetic ability between females and males. However, no significant difference in empathetic ability was found across different age and ethnic groups. Furthermore, no strong correlation was found between empathy and facial reactions to faces portraying different emotions shown on a computer screen. Overall, the results of this study can be used to inform the design of online communication technologies and tools for training empathy team leaders, educators, social and healthcare providers.

Empathizing, systemizing, empathizing-systemizing difference and their association with autistic traits in children with autism spectrum disorder, with and without intellectual disability

Empathizing, systemizing, and empathizing-systemizing difference can be linked to autistic traits in the general adult population and those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but these profiles and associations remain unclear in children with ASD, with and without intellectual disability (ASD + ID; ASD-noID). We recruited three groups including 160 boys with ASD (73 ASD + ID; 87 ASD-noID) and 99 typically developing (TD) boys (6-12 years). We measured empathizing, systemizing, and empathizing-systemizing difference using the parent-reported child Empathy and Systemizing Quotient (EQ-C/SQ-C). We measured autistic traits using the Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Among the three groups, children with ASD + ID and ASD-noID scored lower on the EQ-C and SQ-C than TD children (all p < 0.001). There was no difference in the EQ-C between children with ASD + ID and ASD-noID (16.59 ± 5.53 vs. 16.23 ± 5.85, p = 0.973), and the difference in the SQ-C attenuated to null when adjusting for intelligence between children with ASD-noID and TD children (18.89 ± 7.80 vs. 24.15 ± 6.73, p = 0.089). Children with ASD + ID scored higher on empathizing-systemizing difference than TD children but lower than children with ASD-noID (all p < 0.05). Negative associations between EQ-C and all autistic traits, null associations between SQ-C and all autistic traits, and positive associations between empathizing-systemizing difference and all autistic traits were found in all groups. We observed differences in empathizing, systemizing, and empathizing-systemizing difference and the consistency of their associations with autistic traits among the three groups. Our findings provide implication that behavioral interventions of ASD should consider the balance of empathizing and systemizing. LAY SUMMARY: We examined the profiles of empathizing, systemizing, and empathizing-systemizing difference in children with autism spectrum disorder, with and without intellectual disability (ASD + ID; ASD-noID), and typically developing (TD) children aged 6-12 years. We observed differences in these profiles and the consistency of their associations with autistic traits among the three groups. Empathizing and empathizing-systemizing difference, rather than systemizing, were associated with autistic traits within the three groups. Our findings provide implication that behavioral interventions of ASD should consider these imbalance profiles.

Autistic adults have poorer quality healthcare and worse health based on self-report data

BACKGROUND

Recent research suggests that autistic individuals have shorter lifespans and experience worse health (greater health burden) than non-autistic individuals. Small, qualitative studies suggest that autistic adults also experience poor self-reported healthcare quality.

METHODS

An anonymized, cross-sectional, self-report questionnaire was administered to n = 4158 individuals. The study assessed prevalence of chronic health conditions, healthcare quality, differences in overall health inequality score, and effects of the coronavirus pandemic on healthcare quality. We used Fisher's exact tests, binomial logistic regression, and predictive machine learning tools, as appropriate.

RESULTS

The final sample included n = 2649 participants (n = 1285 autistic) aged 16-96 years. Autistic adults reported lower quality healthcare than non-autistic adults across 50/51 items, including poorer access to healthcare and poorer communication, alongside increased anxiety, sensory sensitivity, system-level problems, shutdowns, and meltdowns. Differences between groups were stark: aggregated health inequality scores predicted autism diagnosis, even after stratifying by sex. Autistic adults were also more likely to have chronic health conditions than non-autistic adults. There were no significant differences in healthcare quality for autistic adults before and during the pandemic, although they received relatively poorer quality healthcare than non-autistic adults across both periods.

LIMITATIONS

The study's sampling methods are not likely to capture the perspectives of all autistic individuals, especially those with intellectual disability. Both the autistic and control samples are biased towards UK residents, white individuals, those assigned female at birth, and those who completed an undergraduate degree or higher education. As such, these results may limit their generalizability to other groups. Finally, these results relate to self-reported differences in healthcare quality between autistic and non-autistic adults. The observed group differences may in part reflect differences in perception and communication rather than differences in actual healthcare quality.

CONCLUSIONS

Autistic adults are more likely to have chronic health conditions alongside self-reported lower quality healthcare than others. Health inequalities between these groups are widespread and dramatic; unfortunately, they existed before and have persisted after the onset of the coronavirus pandemic.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the children's empathy quotient and systemizing quotient: 4-12 years

We aimed to validate the Children's Empathy Quotient (EQ-C) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ-C) in Mainland China, which can reflect the profiles of empathizing and systemizing, and describing specific characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and gender-typical behaviors in general population. A total of 800 typically developing (TD) children, aged 4-12 years was recruited initially with whose parents/guardians complete the measurements, and 782 TD children who met inclusion criteria were finally included. A 23-item three-factor EQ-C and a 22-item four-factor SQ-C was developed with good internal consistency (Omega total values of 0.87 and 0.86) and test-retest reliability (Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.82 and 0.69). In TD children, girls scored significantly higher on EQ-C (31.4 ± 7.8 vs. 28.2 ± 7.7) but there were no gender differences in SQ-C scores. TD children showed different cognitive styles (empathizing-dominant for girls with 42.6% identified as Type E; systemizing-dominant for boys with 40.7% identified as Type S). A further sample of 222 children with ASD indicated that they scored lower on EQ/SQ-C compared to TD children (13.2 ± 5.1 vs. 29.7 ± 7.9, 12.4 ± 5.8 vs. 23.5 ± 8.3) and were generally systemizing-dominant (Type S: 50.8% for boys and 64.0% for girls). Autistic children scored higher on the SQ-C in those without intellectual disability and with higher paternal education level and family income (14.2 ± 6.1 vs. 10.9 ± 5.0, 13.3 ± 6.2 vs. 11.5 ± 5.1, 13.7 ± 5.6 vs. 11.9 ± 5.8), while there were no differences in the EQ-C. This study indicated good reliability and validity of the Chinese version of EQ/SQ-C, which can be used in Chinese children with and without ASD. LAY SUMMARY: We developed the Chinese version of the Children's Empathy Quotient (EQ-C) and Systemizing Quotient (SQ-C) in 782 typically developing (TD) children aged 4-12 years in Mainland China, yielding a 23-item, 3-factor EQ-C and a 22-item, 4-factor SQ-C with good psychometric properties. In TD children, we found gender difference only in scores of EQ-C. Further analyses of 222 autistic children indicated that differences were found in scores of SQ-C when considering their gender, intelligence and socio-economic status.

Evidence of partner similarity for autistic traits, systemizing, and theory of mind via facial expressions

It has been hypothesised that romantic partners are more similar than chance in relation to autistic traits. To test this theory, we recruited n = 105 heterosexual couples and examined within-couple correlations for autistic traits [measured using the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ)], empathizing [measured using the Empathy Quotient (EQ)], and systemizing [measured using the Systemizing Quotient-Revised (SQ-R)]. For a subsample that attended the lab (n = 58 couples), we also investigated theory of mind via facial expressions using the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) and attention to detail, a component within systemizing, using the Embedded Figures Task (EFT). Variable-centred analyses revealed positive within-couple correlations for all measures except EQ, although these effects were only statistically significant for unmarried couples and not for married/engaged couples. Follow-up analyses indicated that the observed couple similarity effects are likely consistent with people pairing with those more similar than chance (initial assortment) rather than becoming alike over time (convergence), and to seeking out self-resembling partners (active assortment) rather than pairing in this manner via social stratification processes (social homogamy). Additionally, a significant within-couple correlation for autistic traits was observed at the meta-analytic level. However, it should be noted that the meta-analytic effect size estimate was small (r = 0.153) and indicates that only ~ 2% of variance in a person’s score on a phenotypic measure of autistic traits can be predicted by that of their partner.

Autistic Traits, Empathizing-Systemizing, and Gender Diversity

Previous research indicates a link between autism and transgender and gender-diverse identities, though the association is not yet fully understood. The current study examined autistic traits (Autism Spectrum Quotient [AQ]), empathizing (Empathizing Quotient-Short [EQ-S]), and systemizing (Systemizing Quotient-Short [SQ-S]) in a sample of 89 adults and aimed to test whether gender-diverse individuals exhibit cognitive profiles consistent with predictions derived from the Extreme Male Brain (EMB) theory. As most research has considered only cisgender people, we recruited a more diverse sample by contacting > 200 UK LGBTQ+ organizations and posting on social media. A range of non-cisgender identities (e.g., transgender male, transgender female, non-binary, genderqueer, transmasculine) and non-heterosexual orientations (e.g., bisexual) were represented, and participants were categorized into one of four groups: (1) assigned female at birth but does not identify as female (transgender AFAB) (n = 32), (2) cisgender female (n = 21), (3) assigned male at birth but does not identify as male (transgender AMAB) (n = 18), and (4) cisgender male (n = 18). After controlling for age and autism diagnostic status, transgender AFAB participants had marginally higher AQ scores, and significantly higher SQ-S and systemizing-relative-to-empathizing (D) scores, compared with the cisgender female group. No such differences were detected between the transgender AMAB and cisgender male groups. Our findings are broadly in line with predictions derived from the EMB theory, though as no transgender AFAB participants reported being heterosexual, it was not possible to determine whether these effects relate specifically to gender identity, to sexual orientation, or to both.

Evidence That Nine Autistic Women Out of Ten Have Been Victims of Sexual Violence

Background

Research indicates that sexual violence affects about 30% of women in the general population and between two to three times as much for autistic women.

Materials and Methods

We investigated prevalence of sexual abuse, autistic traits and a range of symptoms, using an online survey addressed to the women of the French autistic community (n = 225). We assessed victimization through an open question and through a specific questionnaire, derived from the Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimization.

Results

Both case identification methods yielded high figures: 68.9% victimization (open question) compared to 88.4% (standardized questionnaire). Two thirds of the victims were very young when they were first assaulted: among 199 victims, 135 were aged 18 or below and 112 participants were aged 15 or below. 75% of participants included in our study reported several aggressions. Analyses indicate that primo-victimization was highly correlated to revictimization and that being young increased that risk. Young victims were also at higher risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder. A third of the victims reported the assault. 25% of those were able to file a complaint (n = 12) and/or receive care (n = 13). For the remainder 75%, reporting did not lead to action.

Discussion

Those findings indicate a very large proportion of victims of sexual assault among autistic women, consistently with previous research. The World Health Organization states unambiguously that sexual violence is systemic and that vulnerable individuals are preferably targeted by offenders. We therefore postulate that it would be erroneous to consider that victimization of autistic women is mainly due to autism. On the contrary, autism seems to be just a vulnerability factor. Some authors propose that educating potential victims to better protect themselves would help preventing abuse. We reviewed this proposition in the light of our results and found it to be impossible to apply since more than half of the victims were below or at the age of consent. Literature about sexual violence is discussed. Large-scale prevention programs proposed by World Health Organization and the Center for Disease Control aim at cultural changes in order to diminish gender inequality, that they identify as the very root of sexual violence.

Exploring the Nature of Teachers' Math-Gender Stereotypes: The Math-Gender Misconception Questionnaire

Stereotypes of girls having weaker mathematical abilities than boys (math-gender stereotypes) are one factor reducing women's representation in mathematics. Teachers, as powerful socializers, often hold math-gender stereotypes. Reducing math-gender stereotypes in (student) teachers thus may foster women's representation in mathematics. Yet knowing the stereotypes' underlying assumptions is crucial to reducing it. Do math-gender stereotypes reflect elaborate, disproven theories about gender differences in math, meaning math-gender misconceptions? And if so, which math-gender misconceptions are behind math-gender stereotypes? This is the focus of the present research. The relevant literature implies the existence of three distinct misconceptions: (1) empathizing-systemizing ("As girls think rather empathically and boys think rather systematically, boys are on average more talented in math than girls"), (2) girls' compensation ("To achieve equally good grades in mathematics, boys have to make less effort because they are more talented than girls are"), and (3) girls' non-compensability ("Despite their on average stronger effort, girls are normally less proficient in math than boys"). We assessed these misconceptions in a student teacher sample (N = 303) using our newly developed Math-Gender Misconceptions Questionnaire. Our results offer support for the expected three-factor structure of math-gender misconceptions. All three math-gender misconceptions showed good to acceptable scale reliabilities. On average, preservice teachers did not hold (strong) math-gender misconceptions. But a subgroup of 48.2% of preservice teachers held at least one of the three misconceptions. The empathizing-systemizing misconception was the most prevalent (32.0%) among the three misconceptions. Descriptively, endorsing the math-gender stereotype correlated most strongly with the empathizing-systemizing (r = 0.43) and the girls' compensation misconception (r = 0.44). This may indicate that especially these two misconceptions partly underlie math-gender stereotypes. As a consequence, refutation instructions designed to reduce these misconceptions may be a promising method to weaken math-gender stereotypes. Further research is needed to investigate to what degree reducing the present misconceptions is related to reducing math-gender stereotypes. Hence, this study is the first one of a planned series of studies on the relation between math-gender misconceptions and math-gender stereotypes.

The effect of autistic traits on disembedding and mental rotation in neurotypical women and men

Recent data has revealed dissociations between social and non-social skills in both autistic and neurotypical populations. In the present study, we investigated whether specific visuospatial abilities, such as figure disembedding and mental rotation, are differently related to social and non-social autistic traits, in neurotypical women and men. University students (N = 426) completed the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), figure disembedding and mental rotation of two-dimensional figures tasks. AQ social skills (AQ-social) and attention-to-details (AQ-attention) subscales were used as measures of social and non-social autistic traits, respectively. Mental rotation was affected by a significant interaction between sex, social and non-social traits. When non-social traits were above the mean (+ 1 SD), no sex differences in mental rotation were found. Instead, below this value, sex differences depended on the social traits, with men on average outperforming women at middle-to-high social traits, and with a comparable performance, and with women on average outperforming men, at lower social traits. A small positive correlation between figure disembedding and social traits was observed in the overall sample. These results are interpreted in terms of the hyper-systemizing theory of autism and contribute to the evidence of individual differences in the cognitive style of autistic people and neurotypical people with autistic traits.

Oxytocin and vasopressin in the hippocampus

Oxytocin (OXT) and vasopressin (AVP) are related neuropeptides that exert a wide range of effects on general health, homeostasis, development, reproduction, adaptability, cognition, social and nonsocial behaviors. The two peptides are mainly of hypothalamic origin and execute their peripheral and central physiological roles via OXT and AVP receptors, which are members of the G protein-coupled receptor family. These receptors, largely distributed in the body, are abundantly expressed in the hippocampus, a brain region particularly vulnerable to stress exposure and various lesions. OXT and AVP have important roles in the hippocampus, by modulating important processes like neuronal excitability, network oscillatory activity, synaptic plasticity, and social recognition memory. This chapter includes an overview regarding OXT and AVP structure, synthesis, receptor distribution, and functions, focusing on their relationship with the hippocampus and mechanisms by which they influence hippocampal activity. Brief information regarding hippocampal structure and susceptibility to lesions is also provided. The roles of OXT and AVP in neurodevelopment and adult central nervous system function and disorders are highlighted, discussing their potential use as targeted therapeutic tools in neuropsychiatric diseases.

Is there an association between prenatal testosterone and autistic traits in adolescents?

Prenatal testosterone (pT) is a crucial component in physiological masculinization in humans. In line with the Prenatal Sex Steroid Theory of autism, some studies have found a positive correlation between pT and autistic traits in childhood. However, effects in adolescence have not been explored. Hormonal and environmental changes occurring during puberty may alter the strength or the nature of prenatal effects on autistic traits. The current study examines if pT relates to autistic traits in a non-clinical sample of adolescents and young adults (N = 97, 170 observations; age 13-21 years old). It also explores pT interactions with pubertal stage and timing. PT concentrations were measured from amniotic fluid extracted in the 2nd trimester of gestation via amniocentesis conducted for clinical purposes. Autistic traits were measured by self- and parent-reports on the Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) which provides a total score and 5 sub-scores (social skills, communication, imagination, attention switching and attention to detail). Self-reported pubertal stage was regressed on age to provide a measure of relative timing. We found no statistical evidence for a direct association between pT and autistic traits in this adolescent sample (males, females or full sample). Exploratory analyses suggested that pT correlated positively with autistic traits in adolescents with earlier puberty-onset, but statistical robustness of this finding was limited. Further exploratory post-hoc tests suggested the pT-by-pubertal timing interaction was stronger in males relative to females, in self-reported compared to parent-reported AQ and specifically for social traits. These findings require replication in larger samples. Findings have implications for understanding the effects of pT on human behavior, specifically existence of effects in adolescence.

How cognitive and emotional empathy relate to rational thinking: empirical evidence and meta-analysis

Empathy is frequently described in opposition to rationality. Yet in two studies, we demonstrate that the relationship between rationality and empathy is nuanced and likely context dependent. Study 1 reports correlational data from two American samples and Study 2 presents a meta-analysis of existing literature (k = 22). We demonstrate that various types of cognitive empathy (perspective-taking, emotion recognition, and fantasy) are positively correlated with self-reported rationality, but unrelated to rational performance. In contrast, types of emotional empathy (empathic concern, personal distress, and emotion contagion) are generally negatively correlated with performance measures of rationality, but their relationships with self-reported rationality are divergent. Although these results do not settle the debate on empathy and rationality, they challenge the opposing domains hypothesis and provide tentative support for a dual-process model of empathy. Overall, these results indicate that the relationship between rationality and empathy differs depending upon how rationality and empathy are measured.