Multiple cannabinoid signaling cascades powerfully suppress recurrent excitation in the hippocampus

Cannabidiol ameliorates mitochondrial disease via PPARγ activation in preclinical models

Mutations in mitochondrial energy-producing genes lead to a heterogeneous group of untreatable disorders known as primary mitochondrial diseases (MD). Leigh syndrome (LS) is the most common pediatric MD and is characterized by progressive neuromuscular affectation and premature death. Here, we show that daily cannabidiol (CBD) administration significantly extends lifespan and ameliorates pathology in two LS mouse models, and improves cellular function in fibroblasts from LS patients. CBD delays motor decline and neurodegenerative signs, improves social deficits and breathing abnormalities, decreases thermally induced seizures, and improves neuropathology in affected brain regions. Mechanistically, we identify peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) as a key nuclear receptor mediating CBD's beneficial effects, while also providing proof of dysregulated PPARγ expression and activity as a common feature in both mouse neurons and fibroblasts from LS patients. Taken together, our results provide the first evidence for CBD as a potential treatment for LS.

Retrograde adenosine/A2A receptor signaling facilitates excitatory synaptic transmission and seizures

Retrograde signaling at the synapse is a fundamental way by which neurons communicate and neuronal circuit function is fine-tuned upon activity. While long-term changes in neurotransmitter release commonly rely on retrograde signaling, the mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we identified adenosine/A2A receptor (A2AR) as a retrograde signaling pathway underlying presynaptic long-term potentiation (LTP) at a hippocampal excitatory circuit critically involved in memory and epilepsy. Transient burst activity of a single dentate granule cell induced LTP of mossy cell synaptic inputs, a BDNF/TrkB-dependent form of plasticity that facilitates seizures. Postsynaptic TrkB activation released adenosine from granule cells, uncovering a non-conventional BDNF/TrkB signaling mechanism. Moreover, presynaptic A2ARs were necessary and sufficient for LTP. Lastly, seizure induction released adenosine in a TrkB-dependent manner, while removing A2ARs or TrkB from the dentate gyrus had anti-convulsant effects. By mediating presynaptic LTP, adenosine/A2AR retrograde signaling may modulate dentate gyrus-dependent learning and promote epileptic activity.

Non-canonical type 1 cannabinoid receptor signaling regulates night visual processing in the inner rat retina

Type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) are expressed in major retinal neurons within the rod-pathway suggesting a role in regulating night visual processing, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Using acute rat retinal slices, we show that CB1R activation reduces glutamate release from rod bipolar cell (RBC) axon terminals onto AII and A17 amacrine cells through a pathway that requires exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (EPAC1/2) signaling. Consequently, CB1R activation abrogates reciprocal GABAergic feedback inhibition from A17 amacrine cells. Moreover, the activation of CB1Rs in vivo enhances and prolongs the time course of the dim-light rod-driven visual responses, an effect that was eliminated when both GABAA and GABAC receptors were blocked. Altogether, our findings underscore a non-canonical mechanism by which cannabinoid signaling regulates RBC dyad synapses in the inner retina to regulate dim-light visual responses to fine-tune night vision.

Presynaptic nanoscale components of retrograde synaptic signaling

While our understanding of the nanoscale architecture of anterograde synaptic transmission is rapidly expanding, the qualitative and quantitative molecular principles underlying distinct mechanisms of retrograde synaptic communication remain elusive. We show that a particular form of tonic cannabinoid signaling is essential for setting target cell-dependent synaptic variability. It does not require the activity of the two major endocannabinoid-producing enzymes. Instead, by developing a workflow for physiological, anatomical, and molecular measurements at the same unitary synapse, we demonstrate that the nanoscale stoichiometric ratio of type 1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1Rs) to the release machinery is sufficient to predict synapse-specific release probability. Accordingly, selective decrease of extrasynaptic CB1Rs does not affect synaptic transmission, whereas in vivo exposure to the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol disrupts the intrasynaptic nanoscale stoichiometry and reduces synaptic variability. These findings imply that synapses leverage the nanoscale stoichiometry of presynaptic receptor coupling to the release machinery to establish synaptic strength in a target cell-dependent manner.

Intrinsic and Synaptic Contributions to Repetitive Spiking in Dentate Granule Cells

Repetitive firing of granule cells (GCs) in the dentate gyrus (DG) facilitates synaptic transmission to the CA3 region. This facilitation can gate and amplify the flow of information through the hippocampus. High-frequency bursts in the DG are linked to behavior and plasticity, but GCs do not readily burst. Under normal conditions, a single shock to the perforant path in a hippocampal slice typically drives a GC to fire a single spike, and only occasionally more than one spike is seen. Repetitive spiking in GCs is not robust, and the mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we used a hybrid genetically encoded voltage sensor to image voltage changes evoked by cortical inputs in many mature GCs simultaneously in hippocampal slices from male and female mice. This enabled us to study relatively infrequent double and triple spikes. We found GCs are relatively homogeneous and their double spiking behavior is cell autonomous. Blockade of GABA type A receptors increased multiple spikes and prolonged the interspike interval, indicating inhibitory interneurons limit repetitive spiking and set the time window for successive spikes. Inhibiting synaptic glutamate release showed that recurrent excitation mediated by hilar mossy cells contributes to, but is not necessary for, multiple spiking. Blockade of T-type Ca2+ channels did not reduce multiple spiking but prolonged interspike intervals. Imaging voltage changes in different GC compartments revealed that second spikes can be initiated in either dendrites or somata. Thus, pharmacological and biophysical experiments reveal roles for both synaptic circuitry and intrinsic excitability in GC repetitive spiking.

Pre- versus Post-synaptic Forms of LTP in Two Branches of the Same Hippocampal Afferent

There has been considerable controversy about pre- versus postsynaptic expression of memory-related long-term potentiation (LTP), with corresponding disputes about underlying mechanisms. We report here an instance in male mice, in which both types of potentiation are expressed but in separate branches of the same hippocampal afferent. Induction of LTP in the dentate gyrus (DG) branch of the lateral perforant path (LPP) reduces paired-pulse facilitation, is blocked by antagonism of cannabinoid receptor type 1, and is not affected by suppression of postsynaptic actin polymerization. These observations are consistent with presynaptic expression. The opposite pattern of results was obtained in the LPP branch that innervates the distal dendrites of CA3: LTP did not reduce paired-pulse facilitation, was unaffected by the cannabinoid receptor blocker, and required postsynaptic actin filament assembly. Differences in the two LPP termination sites were also noted for frequency facilitation of synaptic responses, an effect that was reproduced in a two-step simulation by small adjustments to vesicle release dynamics. These results indicate that different types of glutamatergic neurons impose different forms of filtering and synaptic plasticity on their afferents. They also suggest that inputs are routed to, and encoded by, different sites within the hippocampus depending upon the pattern of activity arriving over the parent axon.

Fast and slow: Recording neuromodulator dynamics across both transient and chronic time scales

Neuromodulators transform animal behaviors. Recent research has demonstrated the importance of both sustained and transient change in neuromodulators, likely due to tonic and phasic neuromodulator release. However, no method could simultaneously record both types of dynamics. Fluorescence lifetime of optical reporters could offer a solution because it allows high temporal resolution and is impervious to sensor expression differences across chronic periods. Nevertheless, no fluorescence lifetime change across the entire classes of neuromodulator sensors was previously known. Unexpectedly, we find that several intensity-based neuromodulator sensors also exhibit fluorescence lifetime responses. Furthermore, we show that lifetime measures in vivo neuromodulator dynamics both with high temporal resolution and with consistency across animals and time. Thus, we report a method that can simultaneously measure neuromodulator change over transient and chronic time scales, promising to reveal the roles of multi-time scale neuromodulator dynamics in diseases, in response to therapies, and across development and aging.

Early endocannabinoid-mediated depolarization-induced suppression of excitation delays the appearance of the epileptic phenotype in synapsin II knockout mice

The mechanism underlying the transition from the pre-symptomatic to the symptomatic state is a crucial aspect of epileptogenesis. SYN2 is a member of a multigene family of synaptic vesicle phosphoproteins playing a fundamental role in controlling neurotransmitter release. Human SYN2 gene mutations are associated with epilepsy and autism spectrum disorder. Mice knocked out for synapsin II (SynII KO) are prone to epileptic seizures that appear after 2 months of age. However, the involvement of the endocannabinoid system, known to regulate seizure development and propagation, in the modulation of the excitatory/inhibitory balance in the epileptic hippocampal network of SynII KO mice has not been explored. In this study, we investigated the impact of endocannabinoids on glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses at hippocampal dentate gyrus granule cells in young pre-symptomatic (1-2 months old) and adult symptomatic (5-8 months old) SynII KO mice. We observed an increase in endocannabinoid-mediated depolarization-induced suppression of excitation in young SynII KO mice, compared to age-matched wild-type controls. In contrast, the endocannabinoid-mediated depolarization-induced suppression of inhibition remained unchanged in SynII KO mice at both ages. This selective alteration of excitatory synaptic transmission was accompanied by changes in hippocampal endocannabinoid levels and cannabinoid receptor type 1 distribution among glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic terminals contacting the granule cells of the dentate gyrus. Finally, inhibition of type-1 cannabinoid receptors in young pre-symptomatic SynII KO mice induced seizures during a tail suspension test. Our results suggest that endocannabinoids contribute to maintaining network stability in a genetic mouse model of human epilepsy.

Dopamine D2 receptors in hilar mossy cells regulate excitatory transmission and hippocampal function

Hilar mossy cells (MCs) are principal excitatory neurons of the dentate gyrus (DG) that play critical roles in hippocampal function and have been implicated in brain disorders such as anxiety and epilepsy. However, the mechanisms by which MCs contribute to DG function and disease are poorly understood. A defining feature of MCs is the promoter activity of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) gene (Drd2), and previous work indicates a key role for dopaminergic signaling in the DG. Additionally, the involvement of D2R signaling in cognition and neuropsychiatric conditions is well known. Surprisingly, though, the function of MC D2Rs remains largely unexplored. In this study, we show that selective and conditional removal of Drd2 from MCs of adult mice impaired spatial memory, promoted anxiety-like behavior, and was proconvulsant. To determine the subcellular expression of D2Rs in MCs, we used a D2R knockin mouse which revealed that D2Rs are enriched in the inner molecular layer of the DG, where MCs establish synaptic contacts with granule cells (GCs). D2R activation by exogenous and endogenous dopamine reduced MC to dentate GC synaptic transmission, most likely by a presynaptic mechanism. In contrast, exogenous dopamine had no significant impact on MC excitatory inputs and passive and active properties. Our findings support that MC D2Rs are essential for proper DG function by reducing MC excitatory drive onto GCs. Lastly, impairment of MC D2R signaling could promote anxiety and epilepsy, therefore highlighting a potential therapeutic target.

Dopamine D2 receptors in mossy cells reduce excitatory transmission and are essential for hippocampal function

Hilar mossy cells (MCs) are principal excitatory neurons of the dentate gyrus (DG) that play critical roles in hippocampal function and have been implicated in brain disorders such as anxiety and epilepsy. However, the mechanisms by which MCs contribute to DG function and disease are poorly understood. Expression from the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) gene (Drd2) promoter is a defining feature of MCs, and previous work indicates a key role for dopaminergic signaling in the DG. Additionally, the involvement of D2R signaling in cognition and neuropsychiatric conditions is well-known. Surprisingly, though, the function of MC D2Rs remain largely unexplored. In this study, we show that selective and conditional removal of Drd2 from MCs of adult mice impaired spatial memory, promoted anxiety-like behavior and was proconvulsant. To determine the subcellular expression of D2Rs in MCs, we used a D2R knockin mouse which revealed that D2Rs are enriched in the inner molecular layer of the DG, where MCs establish synaptic contacts with granule cells. D2R activation by exogenous and endogenous dopamine reduced MC to dentate granule cells (GC) synaptic transmission, most likely by a presynaptic mechanism. In contrast, removing Drd2 from MCs had no significant impact on MC excitatory inputs and passive and active properties. Our findings support that MC D2Rs are essential for proper DG function by reducing MC excitatory drive onto GCs. Lastly, impairment of MC D2R signaling could promote anxiety and epilepsy, therefore highlighting a potential therapeutic target.

Control of a hippocampal recurrent excitatory circuit by cannabinoid receptor-interacting protein Gap43

The type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB₁R) is widely expressed in excitatory and inhibitory nerve terminals, and by suppressing neurotransmitter release, its activation modulates neural circuits and brain function. While the interaction of CB₁R with various intracellular proteins is thought to alter receptor signaling, the identity and role of these proteins are poorly understood. Using a high-throughput proteomic analysis complemented with an array of in vitro and in vivo approaches in the mouse brain, we report that the C-terminal, intracellular domain of CB₁R interacts specifically with growth-associated protein of 43 kDa (GAP43). The CB₁R-GAP43 interaction occurs selectively at mossy cell axon boutons, which establish excitatory synapses with dentate granule cells in the hippocampus. This interaction impairs CB₁R-mediated suppression of mossy cell to granule cell transmission, thereby inhibiting cannabinoid-mediated anti-convulsant activity in mice. Thus, GAP43 acts as a synapse type-specific regulatory partner of CB₁R that hampers CB₁R-mediated effects on hippocampal circuit function.

Cannabinoid regulation of neurons in the dentate gyrus during epileptogenesis: Role of CB1R-associated proteins and downstream pathways

The hippocampal formation plays a central role in the development of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), a disease characterized by recurrent, unprovoked epileptic discharges. TLE is a neurologic disorder characterized by acute long-lasting seizures (i.e., abnormal electrical activity in the brain) or seizures that occur in close proximity without recovery, typically after a brain injury or status epilepticus. After status epilepticus, epileptogenic hyperexcitability develops gradually over the following months to years, resulting in the emergence of chronic, recurrent seizures. Acting as a filter or gate, the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) normally prevents excessive excitation from propagating through the hippocampus, and is considered a critical region in the progression of epileptogenesis in pathological conditions. Importantly, lipid-derived endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids), which are produced on demand as retrograde messengers, are central regulators of neuronal activity in the DG circuit. In this review, we summarize recent findings concerning the role of the DG in controlling hyperexcitability and propose how DG regulation by cannabinoids (CBs) could provide avenues for therapeutic interventions. We also highlight possible pathways and manipulations that could be relevant for the control of hyperexcitation. The use of CB compounds to treat epilepsies is controversial, as anecdotal evidence is not always validated by clinical trials. Recent publications shed light on the importance of the DG as a region regulating incoming hippocampal excitability during epileptogenesis. We review recent findings concerning the modulation of the hippocampal DG circuitry by CBs and discuss putative underlying pathways. A better understanding of the mechanisms by which CBs exert their action during seizures may be useful to improve therapies.

Endocannabinoids at the synapse and beyond: implications for neuropsychiatric disease pathophysiology and treatment

Endocannabinoids (eCBs) are lipid neuromodulators that suppress neurotransmitter release, reduce postsynaptic excitability, activate astrocyte signaling, and control cellular respiration. Here, we describe canonical and emerging eCB signaling modes and aim to link adaptations in these signaling systems to pathological states. Adaptations in eCB signaling systems have been identified in a variety of biobehavioral and physiological process relevant to neuropsychiatric disease states including stress-related disorders, epilepsy, developmental disorders, obesity, and substance use disorders. These insights have enhanced our understanding of the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric disorders and are contributing to the ongoing development of eCB-targeting therapeutics. We suggest future studies aimed at illuminating how adaptations in canonical as well as emerging cellular and synaptic modes of eCB signaling contribute to disease pathophysiology or resilience could further advance these novel treatment approaches.

Behavioral and Molecular Responses to Exogenous Cannabinoids During Pentylenetetrazol-Induced Convulsions in Male and Female Rats

Epilepsy is a disabling, chronic brain disease,affecting ~1% of the World’s population, characterized by recurrent seizures (sudden, uncontrolled brain activity), which may manifest with motor symptoms (e.g., convulsions) or non-motor symptoms. Temporal lobe epilepsies (TLE) compromising the hippocampus are the most common form of focal epilepsies. Resistance in ~1/3 of epileptic patients to the first line of treatment, i.e., antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), has been an important motivation to seek alternative treatments. Among these, the plant Cannabis sativa (commonly known as marihuana) or compounds extracted from it (cannabinoids) have gained widespread popularity. Moreover, sex differences have been proposed in epilepsy syndromes and in cannabinoid action. In the hippocampus, cannabinoids interact with the CB1R receptor whose membrane levels are regulated by β-Arrestin2, a protein that promotes its endocytosis and causes its downregulation. In this article, we evaluate the modulatory role of WIN 55,212-2 (WIN), a synthetic exogenous cannabinoid on behavioral convulsions and on the levels of CB1R and β-Arrestin2 in female and male adolescent rats after a single injection of the proconvulsant pentylenetetrazol (PTZ). As epilepsies can have a considerable impact on synaptic proteins that regulate neuronal toxicity, plasticity, and cognition, we also measured the levels of key proteins markers of excitatory synapses, in order to examine whether exogenous cannabinoids may prevent such pathologic changes after acute seizures. We found that the exogenous administration of WIN prevented convulsions of medium severity in females and males and increased the levels of phosphorylated CaMKII in the hippocampus. Furthermore, we observed a higher degree of colocalization between CB1R and β-Arrestin2 in the granule cell layer.

Seizure-induced strengthening of a recurrent excitatory circuit in the dentate gyrus is proconvulsant

Epilepsy is a devastating brain disorder for which effective treatments are very limited. There is growing interest in early intervention, which requires a better mechanistic understanding of the early stages of this disorder. While diverse brain insults can lead to epileptic activity, a common cellular mechanism relies on uncontrolled recurrent excitatory activity. In the dentate gyrus, excitatory mossy cells (MCs) project extensively onto granule cells (GCs) throughout the hippocampus, thus establishing a recurrent MC-GC-MC excitatory loop. MCs are implicated in temporal lobe epilepsy, a common form of epilepsy, but their role during initial seizures (i.e., before the characteristic MC loss that occurs in late stages) is unclear. Here, we show that initial seizures acutely induced with an intraperitoneal kainic acid (KA) injection in adult mice, a well-established model that leads to experimental epilepsy, not only increased MC and GC activity in vivo but also triggered a brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-dependent long-term potentiation (LTP) at MC-GC excitatory synapses. Moreover, in vivo induction of MC-GC LTP using MC-selective optogenetic stimulation worsened KA-induced seizures. Conversely, Bdnf genetic removal from GCs, which abolishes LTP, and selective MC silencing were both anticonvulsant. Thus, initial seizures are associated with MC-GC synaptic strengthening, which may promote later epileptic activity. Our findings reveal a potential mechanism of epileptogenesis that may help in developing therapeutic strategies for early intervention.

Cannabinoid receptor 1-labeled boutons in the sclerotic dentate gyrus of epileptic sea lions

Pathology in the dentate gyrus, including sclerosis, is a hallmark of temporal lobe epilepsy, and reduced inhibition to dentate granule cells may contribute to epileptogenesis. The perisomatic-targeting axonal boutons of parvalbumin-expressing interneurons decrease in proportion with granule cells in temporal lobe epilepsy. In contrast, dendrite-targeting axonal boutons of somatostatin-expressing interneurons sprout exuberantly in temporal lobe epilepsy. A third major class of GABAergic interneurons expresses cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) on their terminal boutons, but there is conflicting evidence as to whether these boutons are increased or decreased in temporal lobe epilepsy. Naturally occurring temporal lobe epilepsy in California sea lions, with unilateral or bilateral sclerosis, offers the benefit of neuroanatomy and neuropathology akin to humans, but with the advantage that the entirety of both hippocampi from control and epileptic brains can be studied. Stereological quantification in the dentate gyrus revealed that sclerotic hippocampi from epileptic sea lions had fewer CB1-labeled boutons than controls. However, the reduction in the number of granule cells was greater, resulting in increased CB1-labeled boutons per granule cell in sclerotic hippocampi at temporal levels. This suggests that although CB1-expressing boutons are decreased in sclerotic dentate gyri, surviving cells have enhanced innervation from these boutons in epileptic sea lions.

Endocannabinoid-Mediated Control of Neural Circuit Excitability and Epileptic Seizures

Research on endocannabinoid signaling has greatly advanced our understanding of how the excitability of neural circuits is controlled in health and disease. In general, endocannabinoid signaling at excitatory synapses suppresses excitability by inhibiting glutamate release, while that at inhibitory synapses promotes excitability by inhibiting GABA release, although there are some exceptions in genetically epileptic animal models. In the epileptic brain, the physiological distributions of endocannabinoid signaling molecules are disrupted during epileptogenesis, contributing to the occurrence of spontaneous seizures. However, it is still unknown how endocannabinoid signaling changes during seizures and how the redistribution of endocannabinoid signaling molecules proceeds during epileptogenesis. Recent development of cannabinoid sensors has enabled us to investigate endocannabinoid signaling in much greater spatial and temporal details than before. Application of cannabinoid sensors to epilepsy research has elucidated activity-dependent changes in endocannabinoid signaling during seizures. Furthermore, recent endocannabinoid research has paved the way for the clinical use of cannabidiol for the treatment of refractory epilepsy, such as Dravet syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome and tuberous sclerosis complex. Cannabidiol significantly reduces seizures and is considered to have comparable tolerability to conventional antiepileptic drugs. In this article, we introduce recent advances in research on the roles of endocannabinoid signaling in epileptic seizures and discuss future directions.

Mechanisms of endocannabinoid control of synaptic plasticity

The endogenous cannabinoid transmitter system regulates synaptic transmission throughout the nervous system. Unlike conventional transmitters, specific stimuli induce synthesis of endocannabinoids (eCBs) in the postsynaptic neuron, and these travel backwards to modulate presynaptic inputs. In doing so, eCBs can induce short-term changes in synaptic strength and longer-term plasticity. While this eCB regulation is near ubiquitous, it displays major regional and synapse specific variations with different synapse specific forms of short-versus long-term plasticity throughout the brain. These differences are due to the plethora of pre- and postsynaptic mechanisms which have been implicated in eCB signalling, the intricacies of which are only just being realised. In this review, we shall describe the current understanding and highlight new advances in this area, with a focus on the retrograde action of eCBs at CB1 receptors (CB₁Rs).

Cannabinoid control of hippocampal functions: the where matters

In the brain, hippocampal circuits are crucial for cognitive performance (e.g., memory) and deeply affected in pathological conditions (e.g., epilepsy, Alzheimer). Specialized molecular mechanisms regulate different cell types underlying hippocampal circuitries functions. Among them, cannabinoid receptors exhibit various roles depending on the cell type (e.g., neuron, glial cell) or subcellular organelle (e.g., mitochondria). Determining the site of action and precise mechanisms triggered by cannabinoid receptor activation at a local cellular and subcellular level helps us understand hippocampal pathophysiological states. In doing so, past and current research have advanced our knowledge of cannabinoid functions and proposed novel routes for potential therapeutics. By outlining these data in this work, we aim to showcase current findings and highlight the pathophysiological impact of the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1) localization/activation in hippocampal circuits.