Structure and developmentally regulated expression of a Strongylocentrotus purpuratus collagen gene

Cell adhesion and communication: a lesson from echinoderm embryos for the exploitation of new therapeutic tools

In this chapter, we summarise fundamental findings concerning echinoderms as well as research interests on this phylum for biomedical and evolutionary studies. We discuss how current knowledge of echinoderm biology, in particular of the sea urchin system, can shed light on the understanding of important biological phenomena and in dissecting them at the molecular level. The general principles of sea urchin embryo development are summarised, mainly focusing on cell communication and interactions, with particular attention to the cell-extracellular matrix and cell-cell adhesion molecules and related proteins. Our purpose is not to review all the work done over the years in the field of cellular interaction in echinoderms. On the contrary, we will rather focus on a few arguments in an effort to re-examine some ideas and concepts, with the aim of promoting discussion in this rapidly growing field and opening new routes for research on innovative therapeutic tools.

Initial analysis of the molecular image of pamlin, a sea urchin cell adhesion protein, by transmission electron microscopy

Pamlin, an important extracellular protein required early for sea urchin embryogenesis, is readily isolated from the embryos of Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. A molecular image analysis of pamlin was conducted using immuno-electron microscopy, rotary shadowing and negative staining technique-applied electron microscopy. The electron microscopy showed that a monoclonal antibody to the pamlin alpha-subunit bound to a position 13.5 nm from one end of a purified 255 kDa pamlin molecule, which is a 132 nm long and 6.8 nm wide linear structure. The pamlin structure is composed of three subunits, a 47 nm long 52 kDa alpha-subunit that attaches to one end of a 105 nm long 180 kDa beta-subunit, and a 15.6 nm diameter globular 23 kDa gamma-subunit that binds to the middle of the beta-subunit. The alpha- and beta-subunits together form a 125-140nm linear structure. Intermolecular aggregation frequently occurred between the free end of two beta-subunits of the alphabetagamma pamlin molecule, leaving the entire alpha-subunit surface free. Occasionally associations between the ends of alpha-subunits, or between an alpha-subunit and the middle of a beta-subunit also occurred, but no aggregations of pamlin formed through the gamma-subunit. These homophilic molecular aggregations of pamlin formed a large supramolecular network. In addition, the single pamlin molecule rounded at one end under high calcium ion concentration to form a 'loop', suggesting the presence of a calcium sensitive region in the molecule.

Comparative analysis of fibrillar and basement membrane collagen expression in embryos of the sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus

The time of appearance and location of three distinct collagen gene transcripts termed 1 alpha, 2 alpha, and 3 alpha, were monitored in the developing S. purpuratus embryo by in situ hybridization. The 1 alpha and 2 alpha transcripts of fibrillar collagens were detected simultaneously in the primary (PMC) and secondary (SMC) mesenchyme cells of the late gastrula stage and subsequently expressed in the spicules and gut associated cells of the pluteus stage. The 3 alpha transcripts of the basement membrane collagen appeared earlier than 1 alpha and 2 alpha, and were first detected in the presumptive PMC at the vegetal plate of the late blastula stage. The PMC exhibited high expression of 3 alpha at the mesenchyme blastula stage, but during gastrulation the level of expression was reduced differentially among the PMC. In the late gastrula and pluteus stages, both PMC and SMC expressed 3 alpha mRNA, and thus at these stages all three collagen genes displayed an identical expression pattern by coincidence. This study thus provides the first survey of onset and localization of multiple collagen transcripts in a single sea urchin species.

Comparative biochemical analysis of sea urchin peristome and rat tail tendon collagen

We report here a biochemical comparison between type 1 rat tail tendon collagen and collagen isolated from sea urchin peristome tissue. The sea urchin collagen consisted of two species of apparent mol masses, 140 and 116 kDa. Amino acid compositional analysis of the 140 and 116 kDa species revealed the presence of hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine as well as a glycine content of 28.1 mol.%. In solubility experiments the rat tail tendon collagen was found to precipitate at sodium chloride concentrations between 1 and 2 M while peristome collagen remained soluble at salt concentrations as high as 4 M. Incubation of the peristome and rat tail tendon collagen preparations with a sea urchin collagenase/gelatinase resulted in cleavage of the former but not the latter collagen. Upon heat denaturation at 60 degrees C, however, the rat tail tendon collagen served as a substrate for the gelatinase. Cyanogen bromide cleavage of rat tail and peristome collagens generated largely unique peptide maps. Collectively, these results suggest that structural differences exist between echinoderm and vertebrate type 1 collagens.

Characterization of an intronless collagen gene family in the marine sponge Microciona prolifera

Two independent clones from the genomic DNA of a marine sponge Microciona prolifera were isolated by hybridization to the Caenorhabditis elegans Col-1 gene and one clone was obtained from genomic DNA by PCR. They contain open reading frames (MpCol1, MpCol2, MpCol3, MpCol4) capable of coding for a family of collagens different from those previously found in sponges. Southern blotting of genomic DNA suggested the presence of several other homologous genes. cDNA clones covering most of the triple-helical coding domain and the 3' untranslated region of MpCol1 were isolated by specific primers and reverse PCR. Two cDNA clones end in the middle of an AATAAA sequence 170 bp downstream from the translation stop codon of MpCol1. The putative NH2-terminal noncollagenous peptide is composed of only seven amino acid residues. The 1074-bp triple-helical coding region is not interrupted by intervening sequences. It codes for a polypeptide of 120 Gly-Xaa-Yaa triplets with only one short interruption near the COOH terminus. A putative N-glycosylation sequence (Asn-Gly-Ser), three Arg-Gly-Asp triplets known as cell recognition peptides, frequent Lys residues in the Yaa position (which are templates for hydroxylation), several Lys-Gly-Asn/Xaa-Arg peptides known as the lysyl oxidase recognition site, and long stretches without imino acids could be found within the triple-helical domain. The short COOH-terminal noncollagenous domain closely resembles that of nematode cuticular collagens and vertebrate nonfibrillar collagens. Our results strongly support the idea that the diversity of collagen genes and gene families found in higher organisms already existed in sponge.

Expression of type IV collagen-degrading activity during early embryonal development in the sea urchin and the arresting effects of collagen synthesis inhibitors on embryogenesis

Type IV collagen-degrading activity was expressed in homogenates of Lytechinus pictus embryos during embryogenesis. Activity was concentrated 1,600-fold by ammonium sulfate fractionation, ion exchange, and gel chromatography and could not be activated further upon trypsin or organomercurial treatment. This enzyme activity could also degrade gelatin but had no affinity for type I, III, and V collagens. Activity was inhibited by addition of excess type IV collagen or gelatin, but was unaffected by addition of excess amounts of non-collagenous proteins of the extracellular matrix. Chelators such as 1,10-phenanthroline or Na2EDTA reduced activity to control levels. Inhibitors of plasmin and of serine and thiol proteases were without effect. Type IV collagen-degrading activity first became apparent at the stage of early mesenchyme blastula. It then increased by a small increment and remained stable up to the stage of late mesenchyme blastula, coinciding with first detection of collagen synthesis and the appearance of the archenteron. Thereafter, a sharp increase in activity was observed, concurrently with remodelling of the archenteron. Maximum activity was attained at prism stage and was retained throughout to pluteus-larva stage. The specific inhibitors of collagen biosynthesis 8,9-dihydroxy-7-methyl-benzo[b]quinolizinium bromide and tricyclodecane-9-yl xanthate arrested sea urchin embryo development at early blastula, prevented the invagination of the archenteron, and reverted the expression of type IV collagen-degrading activity to non-detectable levels. Removal of the inhibitors allowed embryos to gastrulate and express type IV collagen-degrading activity.

Deployment of extracellular matrix proteins in sea urchin embryogenesis

The apical extracellular matrix of the sea urchin embryo, known as the hyaline layer (HL), is a multi-laminate organelle composed of at least 10 polypeptides. Although integrated into one ECM, HL proteins exhibit individual temporal and spatial dynamics throughout development. These molecules are stockpiled in the oocyte during vitellogenesis in at least four distinct vesicle populations. They are released onto the cell surface at fertilization in a specific order, and interact differentially with embryonic cells as development proceeds. Many experiments have suggested that the HL is vital for embryogenesis, but relatively little is known about the functions and interactions of its constituent molecules. The purpose of the present review has been to gather information on the basic characteristics of the known HL proteins together with data on their expression in the embryo, and where possible, their biological activities. Compiled, these observations may provide some insight into the workings of a uniquely embryonic organelle.

Cloning and sequencing of a Porifera partial cDNA coding for a short-chain collagen

Collagen is present in Porifera, the lowest multicellular animals, but there is no information available on the primary structure of the collagen chains in this phylum. Developing fresh-water sponges have been used to extract total RNA in order to study in vitro translation products and to construct a cDNA library. Four translated proteins were collagenase-sensitive (200 kDa, 160 kDa, 81 kDa and 48 kDa). The cDNA library was screened with a human collagen probe and a clone, EmC4, covering 1.2 kb was isolated. Nucleotide sequencing of EmC4 revealed a conceptual open reading frame coding for 366 amino acids terminated by a stop codon TGA with 103 nucleotides downstream. The presumed translation product encoded contained several domains: a non-collagenous C-terminal domain of 156 amino acids with 9 cysteines, an uninterrupted collagenous domain of 171 amino acids, a non-collagenous domain of 16 amino acids with 3 cysteines and a probably incomplete N-terminal collagenous domain of 23 amino acids. Comparison with other sequences suggested that this collagen chain might belong to a non-fibrillar collagen family which evolved into several sub-families giving rise to nematode cuticular collagens, and type IV collagens.

Evolution of collagen IV genes from a 54-base pair exon: a role for introns in gene evolution

The exon structure of the collagen IV gene provides a striking example for collagen evolution and the role of introns in gene evolution. Collagen IV, a major component of basement membranes, differs from the fibrillar collagens in that it contains numerous interruptions in the triple helical Gly-X-Y repeat domain. We have characterized all 47 exons in the mouse alpha 2(IV) collagen gene and find two 36-, two 45-, and one 54-bp exons as well as one 99- and three 108-bp exons encoding the Gly-X-Y repeat sequence. All these exons sizes are also found in the fibrillar collagen genes. Strikingly, of the 24 interruption sequences present in the alpha 2-chain of mouse collagen IV, 11 are encoded at the exon/intron borders of the gene, part of one interruption sequence is encoded by an exon of its own, and the remaining interruptions are encoded within the body of exons. In such "fusion exons" the Gly-X-Y encoding domain is also derived from 36-, 45-, or 54-bp sequence elements. These data support the idea that collagen IV genes evolved from a primordial 54-bp coding unit. We furthermore interpret these data to suggest that the interruption sequences in collagen IV may have evolved from introns, presumably by inactivation of splice site signals, following which intronic sequences could have been recruited into exons. We speculated that this mechanism could provide a role for introns in gene evolution in general.

Structure and developmental expression of a sea urchin fibrillar collagen gene

We have isolated and characterized cDNA and genomic clones that specify a Paracentrotus lividus procollagen chain. The cDNAs code for 160 uninterrupted Gly-Xaa-Yaa triplets and a 252-amino acid carboxyl propeptide. Analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences indicated that the sea urchin polypeptide exhibits structural features that are characteristic of the fibril-forming class of collagen molecules. Partial characterization of two genomic recombinants revealed that the 3' end of the echinoid gene displays a complex organization that closely resembles that of a prototypical vertebrate fibrillar collagen gene. In situ and Northern (RNA) blot hybridizations established the size, time of appearance, and tissue distribution of the collagen transcripts in the developing sea urchin embryo. Collagen mRNA, approximately equal to 6 kilobases in size, is first detected in the forming primary mesenchyme cells of late blastulae where it progressively accumulates until the free swimming/feeding pluteus larval stage. Interestingly, collagen transcripts are also detected in the forming secondary mesenchyme cells of late gastrulae, and by the prism stage, their derivatives appear to be the most intensively labeled cells.

Domain organization and intron positions in Caenorhabditis elegans collagen genes: the 54-bp module hypothesis revisited

The amino acid (aa) sequences of the polypeptides encoded by five collagen genes of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, col-6, col-7 (partial), col-8, col-14, and col-19, were determined. These collagen polypeptides, as well as those encoded by the previously sequenced C. elegans collagen genes col-1 and col-2, share a common organization into five domains: an amino-terminal leader, a short (30-33 aa) (Gly-X-Y)n domain, a non(Gly-X-Y) spacer, a long (127-132 aa) (Gly-X-Y)n domain, and a short carboxyl-terminal domain. The domain organizations and intron positions of these polypeptides were compared with those of the polypeptides encoded by Drosophila and Strongylocentrotus type IV, and vertebrate types I, II, III, IV, and IX collagen genes; the C. elegans collagen polypeptides are most similar to the vertebrate type IX collagens. It is suggested that the collagen gene family comprises two divergent subfamilies, one of which includes the vertebrate interstitial collagen genes, and the other of which includes the invertebrate collagen genes and the vertebrate type IV and type IX collagen genes. Only the vertebrate interstitial collagen genes display clear evidence of evolution via the tandem duplication of a 54-bp exon.

Expression of a collagen gene in mesenchyme lineages of the Strongylocentrotus purpuratus embryo

We have previously described cloning of an exon of a sea urchin collagen gene and shown that its expression is temporally regulated during embryogenesis, beginning during blastula formation. We have now localized the protein encoded by the gene and the sites of its mRNA synthesis in the developing embryo. Antibody to a synthetic peptide reacts with a 208,000 Mr protein that is digestible by collagenase. Fractionation of pluteus stage embryos demonstrates that the protein is localized primarily with cells that form the syncytium of primary mesenchyme that elaborates the larval endoskeleton; furthermore, immunofluorescence localizes the epitope to the periphery of the endoskeleton in situ. Transcripts of the gene accumulate only in mesenchyme cells, especially those of the primary mesenchyme lineage. Measurements of absolute transcript abundance show that collagen mRNA is present in blastula primary mesenchyme cells at 600-700 copies per cell and at about fourfold lower amounts in other mesenchyme cells.