A minimal motor domain from chicken skeletal muscle myosin

Electrostatic interaction of loop 1 and backbone of human cardiac myosin regulates the rate of ATP induced actomyosin dissociation

Double mutation D208Q:K450L was introduced in the beta isoform of human cardiac myosin to remove the salt bridge D208:K450 connecting loop 1 and the seven-stranded beta sheet within the myosin head. Beta isoform-specific salt bridge D208:K450, restricting the flexibility of loop 1, was previously discovered in molecular dynamics simulations. Earlier it was proposed that loop 1 modulates nucleotide affinity to actomyosin and we hypothesized that the electrostatic interactions between loop 1 and myosin head backbone regulate ATP binding to and ADP dissociation from actomyosin, and therefore, the time of the strong actomyosin binding. To examine the hypothesis we expressed the wild type and mutant of the myosin head construct (1-843 amino acid residues) in differentiated C2C12 cells, and the kinetics of ATP-induced actomyosin dissociation and ADP release were characterized using stopped-flow spectrofluorometry. Both constructs exhibit a fast rate of ATP binding to actomyosin and a slow rate of ADP dissociation, showing that ADP release limits the time of the strongly bound state of actomyosin. We observed a faster rate of ATP-induced actomyosin dissociation with the mutant, compared to the wild type actomyosin. The rate of ADP release from actomyosin remains the same for the mutant and the wild type actomyosin. We conclude that the flexibility of loop 1 is a factor affecting the rate of ATP binding to actomyosin and actomyosin dissociation. The flexibility of loop 1 does not affect the rate of ADP release from human cardiac actomyosin.

The Local Environment of Loop Switch 1 Modulates the Rate of ATP-Induced Dissociation of Human Cardiac Actomyosin

Two isoforms of human cardiac myosin, alpha and beta, share significant sequence similarities but show different kinetics. The alpha isoform is a faster motor; it spends less time being strongly bound to actin during the actomyosin cycle. With alpha isoform, actomyosin dissociates faster upon ATP binding, and the affinity of ADP to actomyosin is weaker. One can suggest that the isoform-specific actomyosin kinetics is regulated at the nucleotide binding site of human cardiac myosin. Myosin is a P-loop ATPase; the nucleotide-binding site consists of P-loop and loops switch 1 and 2. All three loops position MgATP for successful hydrolysis. Loops sequence is conserved in both myosin isoforms, and we hypothesize that the isoform-specific structural element near the active site regulates the rate of nucleotide binding and release. Previously we ran molecular dynamics simulations and found that loop S291-E317 near loop switch 1 is more compact and exhibits larger fluctuations of the position of amino acid residues in beta isoform than in alpha. In alpha isoform, the loop forms a salt bridge with loop switch 1, the bridge is not present in beta isoform. Two isoleucines I303 and I313 of loop S291-E317 are replaced with valines in alpha isoform. We introduced a double mutation I303V:I313V in beta isoform background and studied how the mutation affects the rate of ATP binding and ADP dissociation from actomyosin. We found that ATP-induced actomyosin dissociation occurs faster in the mutant, but the rate of ADP release remains the same as in the wild-type beta isoform. Due to the proximity of loop S291-E317 and loop switch 1, a faster rate of ATP-induced actomyosin dissociation indicates that loop S291-E317 affects structural dynamics of loop switch 1, and that loop switch 1 controls ATP binding to the active site. A similar rate of ADP dissociation from actomyosin in the mutant and wild-type myosin constructs indicates that loop switch 1 does not control ADP release from actomyosin.

CaATP prolongs strong actomyosin binding and promotes futile myosin stroke

Calcium plays an essential role in muscle contraction, regulating actomyosin interaction by binding troponin of thin filaments. There are several buffers for calcium in muscle, and those buffers play a crucial role in the formation of the transient calcium wave in sarcomere upon muscle activation. One such calcium buffer in muscle is ATP. ATP is a fuel molecule, and the important role of MgATP in muscle is to bind myosin and supply energy for the power stroke. Myosin is not a specific ATPase, and CaATP also supports myosin ATPase activity. The concentration of CaATP in sarcomeres reaches 1% of all ATP available. Since 294 myosin molecules form a thick filament, naïve estimation gives three heads per filament with CaATP bound, instead of MgATP. We found that CaATP dissociates actomyosin slower than MgATP, thus increasing the time of the strong actomyosin binding. The rate of the basal CaATPase is faster than that of MgATPase, myosin readily produces futile stroke with CaATP. When calcium is upregulated, as in malignant hyperthermia, kinetics of myosin and actomyosin interaction with CaATP suggest that myosin CaATPase activity may contribute to observed muscle rigidity and enhanced muscle thermogenesis.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy R403Q mutation in rabbit β-myosin reduces contractile function at the molecular and myofibrillar levels

In 1990, the Seidmans showed that a single point mutation, R403Q, in the human β-myosin heavy chain (MHC) of heart muscle caused a particularly malignant form of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) [Geisterfer-Lowrance AA, et al. (1990) Cell 62:999-1006.]. Since then, more than 300 mutations in the β-MHC have been reported, and yet there remains a poor understanding of how a single missense mutation in the MYH7 gene can lead to heart disease. Previous studies with a transgenic mouse model showed that the myosin phenotype depended on whether the mutation was in an α- or β-MHC backbone. This led to the generation of a transgenic rabbit model with the R403Q mutation in a β-MHC backbone. We find that the in vitro motility of heterodimeric R403Q myosin is markedly reduced, whereas the actin-activated ATPase activity of R403Q subfragment-1 is about the same as myosin from a nontransgenic littermate. Single myofibrils isolated from the ventricles of R403Q transgenic rabbits and analyzed by atomic force microscopy showed reduced rates of force development and relaxation, and achieved a significantly lower steady-state level of isometric force compared with nontransgenic myofibrils. Myofibrils isolated from the soleus gave similar results. The force-velocity relationship determined for R403Q ventricular myofibrils showed a decrease in the velocity of shortening under load, resulting in a diminished power output. We conclude that independent of whether experiments are performed with isolated molecules or with ordered molecules in the native thick filament of a myofibril, there is a loss-of-function induced by the R403Q mutation in β-cardiac myosin.

Piperine, an alkaloid inhibiting the super-relaxed state of myosin, binds to the myosin regulatory light chain

Piperine, an alkaloid from black pepper, was found to inhibit the super-relaxed state (SRX) of myosin in fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibers. In this work we report that the piperine molecule binds heavy meromyosin (HMM), whereas it does not interact with the regulatory light chain (RLC)-free subfragment-1 (S1) or with control proteins from the same muscle molecular machinery, G-actin and tropomyosin. To further narrow down the location of piperine binding, we studied interactions between piperine and a fragment of skeletal myosin consisting of the full-length RLC and a fragment of the heavy chain (HCF). The sequence of HCF was designed to bind RLC and to dimerize via formation of a stable coiled coil, thus producing a well-folded isolated fragment of the myosin neck. Both chains were co-expressed in Escherichia coli, the RLC/HCF complex was purified and tested for stability, composition and binding to piperine. RLC and HCF chains formed a stable heterotetrameric complex (RLC/HCF)₂ which was found to bind piperine. The piperine molecule was also found to bind isolated RLC. Piperine binding to RLC in (RLC/HCF)₂ altered the compactness of the complex, suggesting that the mechanism of SRX inhibition by piperine is based on changing conformation of the myosin.

Metal cation controls phosphate release in the myosin ATPase

Myosin is an enzyme that utilizes ATP to produce a conformational change generating a force. The kinetics of the myosin reverse recovery stroke depends on the metal cation complexed with ATP. The reverse recovery stroke is slow for MgATP and fast for MnATP. The metal ion coordinates the γ phosphate of ATP in the myosin active site. It is accepted that the reverse recovery stroke is correlated with the phosphate release; therefore, magnesium "holds" phosphate tighter than manganese. Magnesium and manganese are similar ions in terms of their chemical properties and the shell complexation; hence, we propose to use these ions to study the mechanism of the phosphate release. Analysis of octahedral complexes of magnesium and manganese show that the partial charge of magnesium is higher than that of manganese and the slightly larger size of manganese ion makes its ionic potential smaller. We hypothesize that electrostatics play a role in keeping and releasing the abstracted γ phosphate in the active site, and the stronger electric charge of magnesium ion holds γ phosphate tighter. We used stable myosin-nucleotide analog complex and Raman spectroscopy to examine the effect of the metal cation on the relative position of γ phosphate analog in the active site. We found that in the manganese complex, the γ phosphate analog is 0.01 nm further away from ADP than in the magnesium complex. We conclude that the ionic potential of the metal cation plays a role in the retention of the abstracted phosphate.

Modulation of Skeletal Muscle Contraction by Myosin Phosphorylation

The striated muscle sarcomere is a highly organized and complex enzymatic and structural organelle. Evolutionary pressures have played a vital role in determining the structure-function relationship of each protein within the sarcomere. A key part of this multimeric assembly is the light chain-binding domain (LCBD) of the myosin II motor molecule. This elongated "beam" functions as a biological lever, amplifying small interdomain movements within the myosin head into piconewton forces and nanometer displacements against the thin filament during the cross-bridge cycle. The LCBD contains two subunits known as the essential and regulatory myosin light chains (ELC and RLC, respectively). Isoformic differences in these respective species provide molecular diversity and, in addition, sites for phosphorylation of serine residues, a highly conserved feature of striated muscle systems. Work on permeabilized skeletal fibers and thick filament systems shows that the skeletal myosin light chain kinase catalyzed phosphorylation of the RLC alters the "interacting head motif" of myosin motor heads on the thick filament surface, with myriad consequences for muscle biology. At rest, structure-function changes may upregulate actomyosin ATPase activity of phosphorylated cross-bridges. During activation, these same changes may increase the Ca2+ sensitivity of force development to enhance force, work, and power output, outcomes known as "potentiation." Thus, although other mechanisms may contribute, RLC phosphorylation may represent a form of thick filament activation that provides a "molecular memory" of contraction. The clinical significance of these RLC phosphorylation mediated alterations to contractile performance of various striated muscle systems are just beginning to be understood. © 2017 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 7:171-212, 2017.

A mutation in the converter subdomain of Aspergillus nidulans MyoB blocks constriction of the actomyosin ring in cytokinesis

We have identified a mutant allele of the Aspergillus nidulans homologue of myosin II (myoB; AN4706), which prevents normal septum formation. This is the first reported myosin II mutation in a filamentous fungus. Strains expressing the myoB(G843D) allele produce mainly aberrant septa at 30 °C and are completely aseptate at temperatures above 37 °C. Conidium formation is greatly reduced at 30 °C and progressively impaired with increasing temperature. Sequencing of the myoB(G843D) allele identified a point mutation predicted to result in a glycine-to-aspartate amino acid substitution at residue 843 in the myosin II converter domain. This residue is conserved in all fungal, plant, and animal myosin sequences that we have examined. The mutation does not prevent localization of the myoB(G843D) gene product to contractile rings, but it does block ring constriction. MyoB(G843D) rings at sites of abortive septation disassemble after an extended period and dissipate into the cytoplasm. During contractile ring formation, both wild type and mutant MyoB::GFP colocalize with actin--an association that begins at the pre-ring "string" stage. Down-regulation of wild-type myoB expression under control of the alcA promoter blocks septation but does not prevent actin from aggregating at putative septation sites--the actin rings, however, do not fully coalesce. Both septation and targeting of MyoB are blocked by disruption of filamentous actin using latrunculin B. We propose a model in which myosin assembly at septation sites depends upon the presence of F-actin, but assembly of the actin component of contractile rings depends upon normal levels of myosin only for the final stages of ring compaction.

The structural dynamics of actin during active interaction with myosin depends on the isoform of the essential light chain

We have used time-resolved phosphorescence anisotropy to investigate the effects of essential light chain (ELC) isoforms (A1 and A2) on the interaction of skeletal muscle myosin with actin, to relate structural dynamics to previously reported functional effects. Actin was labeled with a phosphorescent probe at C374, and the myosin head (S1) was separated into isoenzymes S1A1 and S1A2 by ion-exchange chromatography. As previously reported, S1A1 exhibited substantially lower ATPase activity at saturating actin concentrations but substantially higher apparent actin affinity, resulting in a higher catalytic efficiency. In the absence of ATP, each isoenzyme increased actin's final anisotropy cooperatively and to a similar extent, indicating a similar restriction of the amplitude of intrafilament rotational motions in the strong-binding (S) state of actomyosin. In contrast, in the presence of a saturating level of ATP, S1A1 increased actin anisotropy much more than S1A2 and with greater cooperativity, indicating that S1A1 was more effective in restricting actin dynamics during the active interaction of actin and myosin. We conclude that during the active interaction of actin and ATP with myosin, S1A1 is more effective at stabilizing the S state (probably the force-generating state) of actomyosin, while S1A2 tends to stabilize the weak-binding (non-force-generating) W state. When a mixture of isoenzymes is present, S1A1 is dominant in its effects on actin dynamics. We conclude that ELC of skeletal muscle myosin modulates strong-to-weak structural transitions during the actomyosin ATPase cycle in an isoform-dependent manner, with significant implications for the contractile function of actomyosin.

Gene transfer, expression, and sarcomeric incorporation of a headless myosin molecule in cardiac myocytes: evidence for a reserve in myofilament motor function

The purpose of this study was to implement a living myocyte in vitro model system to test whether a motor domain-deleted headless myosin construct could be incorporated into the sarcomere and affect contractility. To this end we used gene transfer to express a "headless" myosin heavy chain (headless-MHC) in complement with the native full-length myosin motors in the cardiac sarcomere. An NH2-terminal Flag epitope was used for unique detection of the motor domain-deleted headless-MHC. Total MHC content (i.e., headless-MHC+endogenous MHC) remained constant, while expression of the headless-MHC in transduced myocytes increased from 24 to 72 h after gene transfer until values leveled off at 96 h after gene transfer, at which time the headless-MHC comprised ∼20% of total MHC. Moreover, immunofluorescence labeling and confocal imaging confirmed expression and demonstrated incorporation of the headless-MHC in the A band of the cardiac sarcomere. Functional measurements in intact myocytes showed that headless-MHC modestly reduced amplitude of dynamic twitch contractions compared with controls (P<0.05). In chemically permeabilized myocytes, maximum steady-state isometric force and the tension-pCa relationship were unaltered by the headless-MHC. These data suggest that headless-MHC can express to 20% of total myosin and incorporate into the sarcomere yet have modest to no effects on dynamic and steady-state contractile function. This would indicate a degree of functional tolerance in the sarcomere for nonfunctional myosin molecules.

Evidence for an interaction between the SH3 domain and the N-terminal extension of the essential light chain in class II myosins

The function of the src-homology 3 (SH3) domain in class II myosins, a distinct beta-barrel structure, remains unknown. Here, we provide evidence, using electron cryomicroscopy, in conjunction with light-scattering, fluorescence and kinetic analyses, that the SH3 domain facilitates the binding of the N-terminal extension of the essential light chain isoform (ELC-1) to actin. The 41 residue extension contains four conserved lysine residues followed by a repeating sequence of seven Pro/Ala residues. It is widely believed that the highly charged region interacts with actin, while the Pro/Ala-rich sequence forms a rigid tether that bridges the approximately 9 nm distance between the myosin lever arm and the thin filament. In order to localize the N terminus of ELC in the actomyosin complex, an engineered Cys was reacted with undecagold-maleimide, and the labeled ELC was exchanged into myosin subfragment-1 (S1). Electron cryomicroscopy of S1-bound actin filaments, together with computer-based docking of the skeletal S1 crystal structure into 3D reconstructions, showed a well-defined peak for the gold cluster near the SH3 domain. Given that SH3 domains are known to bind proline-rich ligands, we suggest that the N-terminal extension of ELC interacts with actin and modulates myosin kinetics by binding to the SH3 domain during the ATPase cycle.

Myosin essential light chain in health and disease

The essential light chain of myosin (ELC) is known to be important for structural stability of the alpha-helical lever arm domain of the myosin head, but its function in striated muscle contraction is poorly understood. Two ELC isoforms are expressed in fast skeletal muscle, a long isoform and its NH(2)-terminal approximately 40 amino acid shorter counterpart, whereas only the long ELC is observed in the heart. Biochemical and structural studies revealed that the NH(2)-terminus of the long ELC can make direct contacts with actin, but the effects of the ELC on the affinity of myosin for actin, ATPase, force, and the kinetics of force generating myosin cross-bridges are inconclusive. Myosin containing the long ELC has been shown to have slower cross-bridge kinetics than myosin with the short isoform. A difference was also reported among myosins with long isoforms. Increased shortening velocity was observed in atrial compared with ventricular muscle fibers. The common findings suggest that ELC provides the fine tuning of the myosin motor function, which is regulated in an isoform and tissue-dependent manner. The functional importance of the ELC is further implicated by the discovery of ELC mutations associated with Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy. The pathological phenotypes vary in severity, but more notably, almost all ELC mutations result in sudden cardiac death at a young age. This review summarizes the functional roles of striated muscle ELC in normal healthy muscle and in disease. Transgenic animal models and phenotypic characterization of ELC-mediated remodeling of the heart are also discussed.

Functional Consequences of a Mutation in an Expressed Human α-Cardiac Actin at a Site Implicated in Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy

Point mutations in human alpha-cardiac actin cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Functional characterization of these actin mutants has been limited by the lack of a high level expression system for human cardiac actin. Here, wild-type (WT) human alpha-cardiac actin and a mutant E99K actin have been expressed and purified from the baculovirus/insect cell expression system. Glu-99 in subdomain 1 of actin is thought to interact with a positively charged cluster located in the lower 50-kDa domain of the myosin motor domain. Actin-activated ATPase measurements using the expressed actins and beta-cardiac myosin showed that the mutation increased the K(m) for actin 4-fold (4.7 +/- 0.7 mum for WT versus 19.1 +/- 3.0 mum for the mutant), whereas the V(max) values were similar. The mutation slightly decreased the affinity of actin for S1 in the absence of nucleotide, which can partly be accounted for by a slower rate of association. The in vitro motility for the E99K mutant was consistently lower than WT over a range of ionic strengths, which is likely related to the lower average force supported by the mutant actin. The thermal stability of the E99K was comparable to that of WT-actin, implying no folding defects. The lower density of negative charge in subdomain 1 of actin therefore weakens the actomyosin interaction sufficiently to decrease the force and motion generating capacity of E99K actin, thus providing the primary insult that ultimately leads to the disease phenotype.

Kinetics of muscle contraction and actomyosin NTP hydrolysis from rabbit using a series of metal-nucleotide substrates

Mechanical properties of skinned single fibres from rabbit psoas muscle have been correlated with biochemical steps in the cross-bridge cycle using a series of metal-nucleotide (Me.NTP) substrates (Mn(2+) or Ni(2+) substituted for Mg(2+); CTP or ITP for ATP) and inorganic phosphate. Measurements were made of the rate of force redevelopment following (1) slack tests in which force recovery followed a period of unloaded shortening, or (2) ramp shortening at low load terminated by a rapid restretch. The form and rate of force recovery were described as the sum of two exponential functions. Actomyosin-Subfragment 1 (acto-S1) Me.NTPase activity and Me.NDP release were monitored under the same conditions as the fibre experiments. Mn.ATP and Mg.CTP both supported contraction well and maintained good striation order. Relative to Mg.ATP, they increased the rates and Me.NTPase activity of cross-linked acto-S1 and the fast component of a double-exponential fit to force recovery by approximately 50% and 10-35%, respectively, while shortening velocity was moderately reduced (by 20-30%). Phosphate also increased the rate of the fast component of force recovery. In contrast to Mn(2+) and CTP, Ni.ATP and Mg.ITP did not support contraction well and caused striations to become disordered. The rates of force recovery and Me.NTPase activity were less than for Mg.ATP (by 40-80% and 50-85%, respectively), while shortening velocity was greatly reduced (by approximately 80%). Dissociation of ADP from acto-S1 was little affected by Ni(2+), suggesting that Ni.ADP dissociation does not account for the large reduction in shortening velocity. The different effects of Ni(2+) and Mn(2+) were also observed during brief activations elicited by photolytic release of ATP. These results confirm that at least one rate-limiting step is shared by acto-S1 ATPase activity and force development. Our results are consistent with a dual rate-limitation model in which the rate of force recovery is limited by both NTP cleavage and phosphate release, with their relative contributions and apparent rate constants influenced by an intervening rapid force-generating transition.

Expression of a nonpolymerizable actin mutant in Sf9 cells

We have succeeded in expressing actin in the baculovirus/Sf9 cell system in high yield. The wild-type (WT) actin is functionally indistinguishable from tissue-purified actin in its ability to activate ATPase activity and to support movement in an in vitro motility assay. Having achieved this feat, we used a mutational strategy to express a monomeric actin that is incapable of polymerization. Native actin requires actin binding proteins or chemical modification to maintain it in a monomeric state. The mutant actin sediments in the analytical ultracentrifuge as a homogeneous monomeric species of 3.2 S in 100 mM KCl and 2 mM MgCl(2), conditions that cause WT actin to polymerize. The two point mutations that render actin nonpolymerizable are in subdomain 4 (A204E/P243K; "AP-actin"), distant from the myosin binding site. AP-actin binds to skeletal myosin subfragment 1 (S1) and forms a homogeneous complex as demonstrated by analytical ultracentrifugation. The ATPase activity of a cross-linked AP-actin.S1 complex is higher than that of S1 alone, although less than that supported by filamentous actin (F-actin). AP-Actin is an excellent candidate for structural studies of complexes of actin with motor proteins and other actin-binding proteins.

A point mutation in the regulatory light chain reduces the step size of skeletal muscle myosin

Current evidence favors the theory that, when the globular motor domain of myosin attaches to actin, the light chain binding domain or "lever arm" rotates, and thereby generates movement of actin filaments. Myosin is uniquely designed for such a role in that a long alpha-helix (approximately 9 nm) extending from the C terminus of the catalytic core is stabilized by two calmodulin-like molecules, the regulatory light chain (RLC) and the essential light chain (ELC). Here, we introduce a single-point mutation into the skeletal myosin RLC, which results in a large (approximately 50%) reduction in actin filament velocity (V(actin)) without any loss in actin-activated MgATPase activity. Single-molecule analysis of myosin by optical trapping showed a comparable 2-fold reduction in unitary displacement or step size (d), without a significant change in the duration of the strongly attached state (tau(on)) after the power stroke. Assuming that V(actin) approximately d/tau(on), we can account for the change in velocity primarily by a change in the step size of the lever arm without incurring any change in the kinetic properties of the mutant myosin. These results suggest that a principal role for the many light chain isoforms in the myosin II class may be to modulate the flexural rigidity of the light chain binding domain to maximize tension development and movement during muscle contraction.

The two heads of smooth muscle myosin are enzymatically independent but mechanically interactive

The interaction between the two heads of myosin II during motion and force production is poorly understood. To examine this issue, we developed an expression and purification strategy to isolate homogeneous populations of heterodimeric smooth muscle heavy meromyosins containing heads with different properties. As an extreme example, we characterized a heterodimer containing one native head and one head locked in a "weak binding" state by a point mutation in switch 2 (E470A). The in vitro actin filament motility of this heterodimer was the same as the homodimeric control with two cycling heads, suggesting that only one head of a pair actively interacts with actin to generate maximal velocity. A second naturally occurring heterodimer contained two cycling heads with 2-fold different activity, due to the presence or absence of a 7-amino acid insert near the active site. Enzymatically this (+/-) insert heterodimer was indistinguishable from a (50:50) mixture of the two homodimers, but its motility averaged 17% less than that of the mixture. These data suggest that one head of a heterodimer can disproportionately affect the mechanics of double-headed myosin, a finding relevant to our understanding of heterozygous mutant myosins found in disease states like familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy.

Myosin isoforms show unique conformations in the actin-bound state

Crystallographic data for several myosin isoforms have provided evidence for at least two conformations in the absence of actin: a prehydrolysis state that is similar to the original nucleotide-free chicken skeletal subfragment-1 (S1) structure, and a transition-state structure that favors hydrolysis. These weak-binding states differ in the extent of closure of the cleft that divides the actin-binding region of the myosin and the position of the light chain binding domain or lever arm that is believed to be associated with force generation. Previously, we provided insights into the interaction of smooth-muscle S1 with actin by computer-based fitting of crystal structures into three-dimensional reconstructions obtained by electron cryomicroscopy. Here, we analyze the conformations of actin-bound chicken skeletal muscle S1. We conclude that both myosin isoforms in the nucleotide-free, actin-bound state can achieve a more tightly closed cleft, a more downward position of the lever arm, and more stable surface loops than those seen in the available crystal structures, indicating the existence of unique actin-bound conformations.

Solution properties of full length and truncated forms of myosin subfragment 1 from Dictyostelium discoideum

The atomic structures for several myosin head isoforms in different nucleotide states have been determined in recent years. The comparison of these structures is complicated by the use of myosin subfragment 1 (S1) constructs of different length in different studies. Several atomic structures of the S1 nucleotide complex were obtained using Dictyostelium discoideum S1dC, a genetically truncated form of S1 lacking the light chain binding domain (LCBD) and both light chains. The goal of the present study has been to assess the effects of such a truncation on the solution properties of S1 and in particular, on its active site, actin binding site and the converter region. The nucleotide and actin binding properties, CD spectra and the reactivities of Lys-84 (corresponds to the 'reactive lysine', Lys-83 in rabbit skeletal S1) and Cys-678 (corresponds to the 'SH2-group', Cys-697 in rabbit S1) were compared for the full length (flS1) and the truncated (S1dC) forms of Dictyostelium S1. The two forms showed similar nucleotide binding properties. However, SldC had a lower structural stability and a significantly higher Km value for actin-activated ATPase as compared to flS1. Differences were found also in the near-UV CD spectrum between flS1 and S1dC. SH2 reactivity in SldC appeared to be greatly inhibited compared with that in flS1. The modification of Lys-84 caused a greater increase in the MgATPase activity in S1dC than in flS1. ADP inhibited this activation for both SldC and flS1. Taken together our results identify both truncation-caused differences between S1dC and flS1, as well as isoform-related differences between skeletal and Dictyostelium S1.

Folding of the striated muscle myosin motor domain

We have investigated the folding of the myosin motor domain using a chimera of an embryonic striated muscle myosin II motor domain fused on its COOH terminus to a thermal stable, fast folding variant of green fluorescent protein (GFP). In in vitro expression assays, the GFP domain of the chimeric protein, S1(795)GFP, folds rapidly enabling us to monitor the folding of the motor domain using fluorescence. The myosin motor domain folds very slowly and transits through multiple intermediates that are detectable by gel filtration chromatography. The distribution of the nascent protein among these intermediates is strongly dependent upon temperature. At 25 degrees C and above the predominant product is an aggregate of S1(795)GFP or a complex with other lysate proteins. At 0 degrees C, the motor domain folds slowly via an energy independent pathway. The unusual temperature dependence and slow rate suggests that folding of the myosin motor is highly susceptible to off-pathway interactions and aggregation. Expression of the S1(795)GFP in the C2C12 muscle cell line yields a folded and functionally active protein that exhibits Mg(2+)ATP-sensitive actin-binding and myosin motor activity. In contrast, expression of S1(795)GFP in kidney epithelial cell lines (human 293 and COS 7 cells) results in an inactive and aggregated protein. The results of the in vitro folding assay suggest that the myosin motor domain does not fold spontaneously under physiological conditions and probably requires cytosolic chaperones. The expression studies support this conclusion and demonstrate that these factors are optimized in muscle cells.

The myosin power stroke

Optical trapping technology now allows investigators in the motility field to measure the forces generated by single motor molecules. A handful of research groups have exploited this approach to further develop our understanding of the actin-based motor, myosin, an ATPase that is capable of converting chemical energy into mechanical work during a cyclical interaction with filamentous actin. In this regard, myosin-II from muscle is the most well-characterized myosin superfamily member. By combining the data obtained from optical trap assays with that from ensemble biochemical and mechanical assays, this review discusses the fundamental properties of the myosin-II power stroke and, perhaps more significantly, how these properties are governed by this molecule's atomic structure and the biochemical transitions that define its catalytic cycle.

The light chain binding domain of expressed smooth muscle heavy meromyosin acts as a mechanical lever

Structural data led to the proposal that the molecular motor myosin moves actin by a swinging of the light chain binding domain, or "neck." To test the hypothesis that the neck functions as a mechanical lever, smooth muscle heavy meromyosin (HMM) mutants were expressed with shorter or longer necks by either deleting or adding light chain binding sites. The mutant HMMs were characterized kinetically and mechanically, with emphasis on measurements of unitary displacements and forces in the laser trap assay. Two shorter necked constructs had smaller unitary step sizes and moved actin more slowly than WT HMM in the motility assay. A longer necked construct that contained an additional essential light chain binding site exhibited a 1.4-fold increase in the unitary step size compared with its control. Kinetic changes were also observed with several of the constructs. The mutant lacking a neck produced force at a somewhat reduced level, while the force exerted by the giraffe construct was higher than control. The single molecule displacement and force data support the hypothesis that the neck functions as a rigid lever, with the fulcrum for movement and force located at a point within the motor domain.

An unexpectedly large working stroke from chymotryptic fragments of myosin II

Recent structural evidence indicates that the light chain domain of the myosin head (LCD) bends on the motor domain (MD) to move actin. Structural models usually assume that the actin-MD interface remains static and the possibility that part of the myosin working stroke might be produced by rotation about the acto-myosin interface has been neglected. We have used an optical trap to measure the movement produced by proteolytically shortened single rabbit skeletal muscle myosin heads (S-1(A1) and S-1(A2)). The working stroke produced by these shortened heads was more than that which the MD-LCD bend mechanism predicts from the full-length (papain) S-1's working stroke obtained under similar conditions. This result indicates that part of the working stroke may be caused by motor action at the actin-MD interface.

Structural mechanism of muscle contraction

X-ray crystallography shows the myosin cross-bridge to exist in two conformations, the beginning and end of the "power stroke." A long lever-arm undergoes a 60 degrees to 70 degrees rotation between the two states. This rotation is coupled with changes in the active site (OPEN to CLOSED) and phosphate release. Actin binding mediates the transition from CLOSED to OPEN. Kinetics shows that the binding of myosin to actin is a two-step process which affects ATP and ADP affinity. The structural basis of these effects is not explained by the presently known conformers of myosin. Therefore, other states of the myosin cross-bridge must exist. Moreover, cryoelectronmicroscopy has revealed other angles of the cross-bridge lever arm induced by ADP binding. These structural states are presently being characterized by site-directed mutagenesis coupled with kinetic analysis.

The structural basis of muscle contraction

The myosin cross-bridge exists in two conformations, which differ in the orientation of a long lever arm. Since the lever arm undergoes a 60 degree rotation between the two conformations, which would lead to a displacement of the myosin filament of about 11 nm, the transition between these two states has been associated with the elementary 'power stroke' of muscle. Moreover, this rotation is coupled with changes in the active site (CLOSED to OPEN), which probably enable phosphate release. The transition CLOSED to OPEN appears to be brought about by actin binding. However, kinetics shows that the binding of myosin to actin is a two-step process which affects both ATP and ADP affinity and vice versa. The structural basis of these effects is only partially explained by the presently known conformers of myosin. Therefore, additional states of the myosin cross-bridge should exist. Indeed, cryoelectron microscopy has revealed other angles of the lever arm induced by ADP binding to a smooth muscle actin-myosin complex.

Functional properties of myosin isoforms in avian muscle

Sarcomeric myosin is the major skeletal muscle protein and is encoded by a large and complex multigene family whose members are differentially expressed in developing and adult muscle cells. The structure and function of sarcomeric myosins have been extensively analyzed and many myosin genes have now been cloned and sequenced. This manuscript reviews the broad spectrum of myosin research with emphasis on studies in avian systems and discusses how advances in myosin isoform analysis have contributed to muscle and meat science.

Subunit interactions within an expressed regulatory domain of chicken skeletal myosin. Location of the NH2 terminus of the regulatory light chain by fluorescence resonance energy transfer

The regulatory domain (RD), or neck region of the myosin head, consists of two classes of light chains that stabilize an alpha-helical segment of the heavy chain. RD from chicken skeletal muscle myosin was prepared in Escherichia coli by coexpression of a 9-kDa heavy chain fragment with the essential light chain. Recombinant regulatory light chain (RLC), wild type or mutant, was added separately to reconstitute the complex. The affinity of RD for divalent cations was determined by measuring the change in fluorescence of a pair of heavy chain tryptophans upon addition of calcium or magnesium. The complex bound divalent cations with high affinity, similar to the association constants determined for native myosin. The intrinsic fluorescence of the tryptophans could be used as a donor to measure the fluorescence resonance energy transfer distance to a single labeled cysteine engineered at position 2 on RLC. Dansylated Cys2 could also serve as a donor by preparing RLC with a second cysteine at position 79 which was labeled with an acceptor probe. These fluorescence resonance energy transfer distances (24-30 A), together with a previous measurement between Cys2 and Cys155 (Wolff-Long, V. L., Tao, T., and Lowey, S. (1995) J. Biol. Chem. 270, 31111-31118) suggest a location for the NH2 terminus of RLC that appears to preclude a direct interaction between the phosphorylatable serine and specific residues in the COOH-terminal domain.

Effect of nucleotides and actin on the orientation of the light chain-binding domain in myosin subfragment 1

The X-ray structure of myosin head (S1) reveals the presence of a long alpha-helical structure that supports both the essential and the regulatory light chains. It has been proposed that small structural changes in the catalytic domain of S1 are amplified by swinging the long alpha-helix (the "lever arm") to produce approximately 11 nm steps. To probe the spatial position of the putative lever in various S1 states, we have measured, by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), the effect of nucleotides and actin on the distances between Cys-177 of the essential light chain A1 (which is attached to the alpha-helix) and three loci in the catalytic domain. Cys-177 (donor) was labeled with 1,5-IAEDANS. The trinitrophenylated ADP analog (TNP-ADP, acceptor) was used to measure the distance to the active site. Lys-553 at the actin-binding site, labeled with a fluorescein derivative, and Lys-83 modified with trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid served as two other acceptors. FRET measurements were performed for S1 alone, for its complexes with MgADP and MgATP, for the analogs of the transition state of the ATPase reaction, S1.ADP.BeFx, S1.ADP.AlF4, and S1.ADP.VO4, and for acto-S1 in the absence and in the presence of ADP. When the transition state and acto-S1 complexes were formed, the change in the Cys-177 --> Lys-83 distance was <1.1 A, for the distance Cys-177 --> Lys-553, the change was +/-2.5 A. These distance changes correspond to rotations by <10 degrees and approximately 25 degrees, respectively. For the Cys-177 --> TNP-ADP the interprobe separation decreased by approximately 6 A in the presence of BeFx and AlF4- but only 1.9 A in the presence of vanadate; we do not interpret the 6 A change as resulting from the lever rotation. Using the coordinates of the acto-S1 complex, we have computed the expected changes in these distances resulting from rotation of the lever. These changes were much greater than the ones observed. The above results are inconsistent with models of force generation by S1 in which the head assumes two distinct conformations characterized by large differences in the angle between the motor and the light chain-binding domain. Several alternative mechanisms are proposed.

Nucleotide and actin binding properties of the isolated motor domain from Dictyostelium discoideum myosin

Nucleotide and actin binding properties of the truncated myosin head (S1dC) from Dictyostelium myosin II were studied in solution using rabbit skeletal myosin subfragment 1 as a reference material. S1dC and subfragment 1 had similar affinities for ADP analogues, epsilon ADP and TNP-ADP. The complexes of epsilon ADP and BeFx or AIF4- were less stable with S1dC than with subfragment 1. Stern-Volmer constants for acrylamide quenching of S1dC complexes with epsilon ADP, epsilon ADP.AIF4- and epsilon ADP.BeFx were 2.6, 2.9 and 2.2 M-1, respectively. The corresponding values for subfragment 1 were 2.6, 1.5 and 1.1 M-1. The environment of the nucleotide binding site was probed by using a hydrophobic fluorescent probe, PPBA. PPBA was a competitive inhibitor of S1dC Ca(2+)-ATPase (Ki = 1.6 microM). The binding of nucleotides to subfragment 1 enhanced PPBA fluorescence and caused blue shifts in the wavelength of its maximum emission in the order: ATP approximately ADP.AIF4- approximately ADP.BeFx > ATP gamma S > ADP > PPi. In the case of S1dC, the effects of different nucleotides were smaller and indistinguishable from each other. S1dC bound actin tighter than S1 (Kd = 7 nM and 60 nM, respectively). The actin activated MgATPase activity of S1dC varied between preparations, and the Vmax and K(m) values ranged between 3 and 7 s-1 and 60 and 190 microM, respectively. S1dC showed lower structural stability than S1 as revealed by their thermal inactivations at 35 degrees C. These results show that the nucleotide and actin binding of S1dC and subfragment 1 are similar but there are some differences in nucleotide and phosphate analogue-induced changes and the communication between the nucleotide and actin binding sites in these proteins.

Light chain-dependent myosin structural dynamics in solution investigated by transient electrical birefringence

The technique of transient electrical birefringence was used to compare some of the electric and structural dynamic properties of myosin subfragment 1 (S1(elc, rlc)), which has both the essential and regulatory light chains bound, to S1(elc), which has only an essential light chain. The rates of rotational Brownian motion indicate that S1(elc, rlc) is larger, as expected. The permanent electric dipole moment of S1(elc, rlc) is also larger, indicating that the regulatory light chain portion of S1(elc, rlc) has a dipole moment and that it is aligned head-to-tail with the dipole moment of the S1(elc) portion. The permanent electric dipoles decrease with increasing ionic strength, apparently because of ion binding to surface charges. Both S1(elc, rlc) and S1(elc) have intrinsic segmental flexibility, as detected by the ability to selectively align segments with a brief weak electric field. However, unlike S1(elc), which can be structurally distorted by the action of a brief strong electric field, S1(elc, rlc) is stiffer and cannot be distorted by fields as high as 7800 V/cm applied to its approximately 8000 D permanent electric dipole moment. The S1 . MgADP . Pi analog S1 . MgADP . Vi is smaller than S1 . MgADP, for both S1(elc, rlc) and S1(elc). Interestingly, the smaller, stiffer S1(elc, rlc) . MgADP . Vi complex retains intrinsic segmental flexibility. These results are discussed within a framework of current hypotheses of force-producing mechanisms that involve S1 segmental motion and/or the loss of cross-bridge flexibility during force production.

Dictyostelium discoideum myosin II: characterization of functional myosin motor fragments

The transient kinetic properties of the recombinant myosin head fragments M761 and M781, which both lack the light chain binding domain (LCBD) and correspond to the first 761 and 781 residues of Dictyostelium discoideum myosin II, were compared with those of the subfragment 1-like fragment M864 and a shorter catalytic domain fragment M754. The properties of M761, M781, and M864 are almost identical in regard to nucleotide binding, nucleotide hydrolysis, actin binding, and the interactions between actin and nucleotide binding sites. Only the rate of the hydrolysis step was significantly faster for M761 and the affinity of M781 for actin significantly weaker than for M864. This indicates that the LCBD plays no major role in the biochemical behavior of the myosin head. In contrast, loss of the peptide between 754 and 761 produced several major changes in the property of M754 as documented previously [Woodward, S. K. A., Geeves, M. A., & Manstein, D. J. (1995) Biochemistry 34, 16056-16064]. We further show that C-terminal extension of M761 with one or two alpha-actinin repeats has very little effect on the behavior of the protein. The recombinant nature of M761 and the fact that it can be produced and purified in large amounts make it an ideal construct for systematic studies of the structure, kinetics, and function of the myosin motor.

The motor domain and the regulatory domain of myosin solely dictate enzymatic activity and phosphorylation-dependent regulation, respectively

While the structures of skeletal and smooth muscle myosins are homologous, they differ functionally from each other in several respects, i.e., motor activities and regulation. To investigate the molecular basis for these differences, we have produced a skeletal/smooth chimeric myosin molecule and analyzed the motor activities and regulation of this myosin. The produced chimeric myosin is composed of the globular motor domain of skeletal muscle myosin (Met1-Gly773) and the C-terminal long alpha-helix domain of myosin subfragment 1 as well as myosin subfragment 2 (Gly773-Ser1104) and light chains of smooth muscle myosin. Both the actin-activated ATPase activity and the actin-translocating activity of the chimeric myosin were completely regulated by light chain phosphorylation. On the other hand, the maximum actin-activated ATPase activity of the chimeric myosin was the same as skeletal myosin and thus much higher than smooth myosin. These results show that the C-terminal light chain-associated domain of myosin head solely confers regulation by light chain phosphorylation, whereas the motor domain determines the rate of ATP hydrolysis. This is the first report, to our knowledge, that directly determines the function of the two structurally separated domains in myosin head.

Myosin subfragment-1 is fully equipped with factors essential for motor function

The sliding velocity of actin filaments propelled by chicken skeletal myosin subfragment-1 (S1) was measured when the tail end of S1 was specifically bound to the glass surface. To achieve the specific binding, a regulatory light chain was replaced by a recombinant fusion protein of biotin-dependent transcarboxylase (BDTC) and chicken gizzard smooth muscle regulatory light chain (cgmRLC). The BDTC-cgmRLC of S1 was then attached to the glass surface using a biotin-avidin system. The velocity of actin filaments caused by S1 bound to the surface in this manner was 6.8 +/- 0.6 microm/sec at 29 degrees C, which was 3.5-fold greater than that (1.9 +/- 0.3 microm/sec) when bound directly to the surface as in previous studies, but similar to that caused by native chicken skeletal myosin (6.5 +/- 0.6 microm/sec). The actin-activated Mg-ATPase activity was similar to that of S1 before the RLC of S1 was exchanged for BDTC-cgmRLC. The results indicate that S1 can produce a normal fast movement of actin filaments as well as hydrolyse ATP and generate force.

Characterization of the motor and enzymatic properties of smooth muscle long S1 and short HMM: role of the two-headed structure on the activity and regulation of the myosin motor

Truncated mutants of smooth muscle myosin containing various lengths of the S2 portion were expressed in Sf9 cells and purified. Truncated myosin having a heavy chain molecular mass of 128 kDa and larger formed a stable dimer, while 108 kDa myosin remained a monomer. On the other hand, 114 and 110 kDa myosins existed as both monomer and dimer. The enzymatic activity and also the in vitro actin sliding activity of these mutant myosins were measured, and the following findings were obtained. (1) Both the actin sliding activity and the actin-activated ATPase activity showed phosphorylation dependence when myosin forms a dimer while the monomeric form was phosphorylation-independent. This indicates that the interaction between the two heads is operating and critical for the regulation. (2) The actin sliding velocity of the dimer form was twice as large as that of the monomer form, while the actin-activated ATPase activity of the two forms was identical, suggesting that the mechano-chemical efficiency is affected by the interaction between the two heads. (3) The depression of the Mg(2+)-ATPase activity of myosin at low ionic strength, characteristic of the 6S-10S transition of smooth muscle myosin, is abolished with the monomer form, suggesting that the association of the two heads is critical for the 6S-10S transition.

Glycine 699 is pivotal for the motor activity of skeletal muscle myosin

Myosin couples ATP hydrolysis to the translocation of actin filaments to power many forms of cellular motility. A striking feature of the structure of the muscle myosin head domain is a 9-nm long "lever arm" that has been postulated to produce a 5-10-nm power stroke. This motion must be coupled to conformational changes around the actin and nucleotide binding sites. The linkage of these sites to the lever arm has been analyzed by site-directed mutagenesis of a conserved glycine residue (G699) found in a bend joining two helices containing the highly reactive and mobile cysteine residues, SH1 and SH2. Alanine mutagenesis of this glycine (G699A) dramatically alters the motor activity of skeletal muscle myosin, inhibiting the velocity of actin filament movement by > 100-fold. Analysis of the defect in the G699A mutant myosin is consistent with a marked slowing of the transition within the motor domain from a strong binding to a weak binding interaction with actin. This result is interpreted in terms of the role of this residue (G699) as a pivot point for motion of the lever arm. The recombinant myosin used in these experiments has been produced in a unique expression system. A shuttle vector containing a regulated muscle-specific promoter has been developed for the stable expression of recombinant myosin in C2C12 cells. The vector uses the promoter/enhancer region, the first two and the last five exons of an embryonic rat myosin gene, to regulate the expression of an embryonic chicken muscle myosin cDNA. Stable cell lines transfected with this vector express the unique genetically engineered myosin after differentiation into myotubes. The myosin assembles into myofibrils, copurifies with the endogenous myosin, and contains a complement of muscle-specific myosin light chains. The functional activity of the recombinant myosin is readily analyzed with an in vitro motility assay using a species-specific anti-S2 mAb to selectively assay the recombinant protein. This expression system has facilitated manipulation and analysis of the skeletal muscle myosin motor domain and is also amenable to a wide range of structure-function experiments addressing questions unique to the muscle-specific cytoarchitecture and myosin isoforms.

Altered cardiac troponin T in vitro function in the presence of a mutation implicated in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) can be caused by dominant missense mutations in cardiac troponin T (TnT), alpha-tropomyosin, C-protein, or cardiac myosin heavy chain genes. The myosin mutations are known to impair function, but any functional consequences of the TnT mutations are unknown. This report describes the in vitro function of troponin containing an IIe91Asn mutation in rat cardiac TnT, corresponding to the HCM-causing Ile79Asn mutation in man. Mutant and wild-type TnT cDNAs were expressed in bacteria and the proteins purified and reconstituted with the other troponin subunits, the mutation had no effect on troponin's affinity for tropomyosin, troponin-induced binding of tropomyosin to actin, cooperative binding of myosin subfragment 1 to the thin filament, CA(2+)-sensitive regulation of thin filament-myosin subfragment 1 ATPase activity, or the CA2+ concentration dependence of this regulation. However, the mutation resulted in 50% faster thin filament movement over a surface coated with heavy meromyosin in in vitro motility assays. The increased sliding speed suggests an unexpected role for the amino terminal region of TnT in which this mutation occurs. The relationship between this faster motility and altered cardiac contraction in patients with HCM is discussed.

Nucleotides increase the internal flexibility of filaments of dephosphorylated Acanthamoeba myosin II

The actin-activated Mg(2+)-ATPase activity of Acanthamoeba myosin II minifilaments is dependent both on Mg2+ concentration and on the state of phosphorylation of three serine sites at the C-terminal end of the heavy chains. Previous electric birefringence experiments on minifilaments showed a large dependence of signal amplitude on the phosphorylation state and Mg2+ concentration, consistent with large changes in filament flexibility. These observations suggested that minifilament stiffness was important for function. We now report that the binding of nucleotides to dephosphorylated minifilaments at Mg2+ concentrations needed for optimal activity increases the flexibility by about 10-fold, as inferred from the birefringence signal amplitude increase. An increase in flexibility with nucleotide binding is not observed for dephosphorylated minifilaments at lower Mg2+ concentrations or for phosphorylated minifilaments at any Mg2+ concentrations examined. The relaxation times for minifilament rotations that are sensitive to the conformation myosin heads are also observed to depend on phosphorylation, Mg2+ concentration, and nucleotide binding. These latter experiments indicate that the actin-activated Mg2+ concentration, and nucleotide binding. These latter experiments indicate that the actin-activated Mg(2+)-ATPase activity of Acanthamoeba myosin II correlates with both changes in myosin head conformation and the ability of minifilaments to cycle between stiff and flexible conformations coupled to nucleotide binding and release.

The neck region of the myosin motor domain acts as a lever arm to generate movement

The myosin head consists of a globular catalytic domain that binds actin and hydrolyzes ATP and a neck domain that consists of essential and regulatory light chains bound to a long alpha-helical portion of the heavy chain. The swinging neck-level model assumes that a swinging motion of the neck relative to the catalytic domain is the origin of movement. This model predicts that the step size, and consequently the sliding velocity, are linearly related to the length of the neck. We have tested this point by characterizing a series of mutant Dictyostelium myosins that have different neck lengths. The 2xELCBS mutant has an extra binding site for essential light chain. The delta RLCBS mutant myosin has an internal deletion that removes the regulatory light chain binding site. The delta BLCBS mutant lacks both light chain binding sites. Wild-type myosin and these mutant myosins were subjected to the sliding filament in vitro motility assay. As expected, mutants with shorter necks move slower than wild-type myosin in vitro. Most significantly, a mutant with a longer neck moves faster than the wild type, and the sliding velocities of these myosins are linearly related to the neck length, as predicted by the swinging neck-lever model. A simple extrapolation to zero speed predicts that the fulcrum point is in the vicinity of the SH1-SH2 region in the catalytic domain.

Roles of light chains in the activity and conformation of smooth muscle myosin

The 20-kDa regulatory (LC20) and 17-kDa essential (LC17) light chain subunits could be removed from porcine aorta smooth muscle myosin by the use of trifluoperazine and ammonium chloride. The isolated heavy chain rebound both light chains, resulting in the restoration of native properties. Experiments on reconstitution of the isolated heavy chain with LC17 and/or LC20 showed that both light chains were required for folding into the 10 S conformation and thus for the phosphorylation-dependent filament formation of smooth muscle myosin. However, LC17 was not essential for the phosphorylation-dependent regulation of actin-activated ATPase activity and superprecipitation but was required for full regulation. LC17 and phosphorylated LC20 were found to act as activators, and dephosphorylated LC20 was found to act as a repressor of the motor activities of smooth muscle myosin.