Catalytic sites for 3' and 5' incision of Escherichia coli nucleotide excision repair are both located in UvrC

Riemerella anatipestifer UvrC is required for iron utilization, biofilm formation and virulence

UvrC is a subunit of excinuclease ABC, which mediates nucleotide excision repair (NER) in bacteria. Our previous studies showed that transposon Tn4531 insertion in the UvrC encoding gene Riean_1413 results in reduced biofilm formation by Riemerella anatipestifer strain CH3 and attenuates virulence of strain YZb1. In this study, whether R. anatipestifer UvrC has some biological functions other than NER was investigated. Firstly, the uvrC of R. anatipestifer strain Yb2 was in-frame deleted by homologous recombination, generating deletion mutant ΔuvrC, and its complemented strain cΔuvrC was constructed based on Escherichia coli - R. anatipestifer shuttle plasmid pRES. Compared to the wild-type (WT) R. anatipestifer strain Yb2, uvrC deleted mutant ΔuvrC significantly reduced biofilm formation, tolerance to H2O2- and HOCl-induced oxidative stress, iron utilization, and adhesion to and invasion of duck embryonic hepatocytes, but not its growth curve and proteolytic activity. In addition, animal experiments showed that the LD50 value of ΔuvrC in ducklings was about 13-fold higher than that of the WT, and the bacterial loads in ΔuvrC infected ducklings were significantly lower than those in Yb2-infected ducklings, indicating uvrC deletion in R. anatipestifer attenuated virulence. Taken together, the results of this study indicate that R. anatipestifer UvrC is required for iron utilization, biofilm formation, oxidative stress tolerance and virulence of strain Yb2, demonstrating multiple functions of UvrC.RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTSDeletion of uvrC in R. anatipestfer Yb2 significantly reduced its biofilm formation.uvrC deletion led to reduced tolerance to H2O2- and HOCl-induced oxidative stress.The iron utilization of uvrC deleted mutant was significantly reduced.The uvrC deletion in R. anatipestifer Yb2 attenuated its virulence.

Macrophage activation highlight an important role for NER proteins in the survival, latency and multiplication of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is one of the most extensively studied DNA repair processes in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The NER pathway is a highly conserved, ATP-dependent multi-step process involving several proteins/enzymes that function in a concerted manner to recognize and excise a wide spectrum of helix-distorting DNA lesions and bulky adducts by nuclease cleavage on either side of the damaged bases. As such, the NER pathway of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is essential for its survival within the hostile environment of macrophages and disease progression. This review focuses on present published knowledge about the crucial roles of Mtb NER proteins in the survival and multiplication of the pathogen within the macrophages and as potential targets for drug discovery.

Single-molecule fluorescence imaging techniques reveal molecular mechanisms underlying deoxyribonucleic acid damage repair

Advances in single-molecule techniques have uncovered numerous biological secrets that cannot be disclosed by traditional methods. Among a variety of single-molecule methods, single-molecule fluorescence imaging techniques enable real-time visualization of biomolecular interactions and have allowed the accumulation of convincing evidence. These techniques have been broadly utilized for studying DNA metabolic events such as replication, transcription, and DNA repair, which are fundamental biological reactions. In particular, DNA repair has received much attention because it maintains genomic integrity and is associated with diverse human diseases. In this review, we introduce representative single-molecule fluorescence imaging techniques and survey how each technique has been employed for investigating the detailed mechanisms underlying DNA repair pathways. In addition, we briefly show how live-cell imaging at the single-molecule level contributes to understanding DNA repair processes inside cells.

The Helicobacter pylori UvrC Nuclease Is Essential for Chromosomal Microimports after Natural Transformation

Helicobacter pylori is a Gram-negative bacterial carcinogenic pathogen that infects the stomachs of half of the human population. It is a natural mutator due to a deficient DNA mismatch repair pathway and is naturally competent for transformation. As a result, it is one of the most genetically diverse human bacterial pathogens. The length of chromosomal imports in H. pylori follows an unusual bimodal distribution consisting of macroimports with a mean length of 1,645 bp and microimports with a mean length of 28 bp. The mechanisms responsible for this import pattern were unknown. Here, we used a high-throughput whole-genome transformation assay to elucidate the role of nucleotide excision repair pathway (NER) components on import length distribution. The data show that the integration of microimports depended on the activity of the UvrC endonuclease, while none of the other components of the NER pathway was required. Using H. pylori site-directed mutants, we showed that the widely conserved UvrC nuclease active sites, while essential for protection from UV light, one of the canonical NER functions, are not required for generation of microimports. A quantitative analysis of recombination patterns based on over 1,000 imports from over 200 sequenced recombinant genomes showed that microimports occur frequently within clusters of multiple imports, strongly suggesting they derive from a single strand invasion event. We propose a hypothetical model of homologous recombination in H. pylori, involving a novel function of UvrC, that reconciles the available experimental data about recombination patterns in H. pylori. IMPORTANCE Helicobacter pylori is one of the most common and genetically diverse human bacterial pathogens. It is responsible for chronic gastritis and represents the main risk factor for gastric cancer. In H. pylori, DNA fragments can be imported by recombination during natural transformation. The length of those fragments determines how many potentially beneficial or deleterious alleles are acquired and thus influences adaptation to the gastric niche. Here, we used a transformation assay to examine imported fragments across the chromosome. We show that UvrC, an endonuclease involved in DNA repair, is responsible for the specific integration of short DNA fragments. This suggests that short and long fragments are imported through distinct recombination pathways. We also show that short fragments are frequently clustered with longer fragments, suggesting that both pathways may be mechanistically linked. These findings provide a novel basis to explain how H. pylori can fine-tune the genetic diversity acquired by transformation.

Interrogating the substrate specificity landscape of UvrC reveals novel insights into its non-canonical function

Although it is relatively unexplored, accumulating data highlight the importance of tripartite crosstalk between nucleotide excision repair (NER), DNA replication, and recombination in the maintenance of genome stability; however, elucidating the underlying mechanisms remains challenging. While Escherichia coli uvrA and uvrB can fully complement polAΔ cells in DNA replication, uvrC attenuates this alternative DNA replication pathway, but the exact mechanism by which uvrC suppresses DNA replication is unknown. Furthermore, the identity of bona fide canonical and non-canonical substrates for UvrCs are undefined. Here, we reveal that Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrC (MtUvrC) strongly binds to, and robustly cleaves, key intermediates of DNA replication/recombination as compared with the model NER substrates. Notably, inactivation of MtUvrC ATPase activity significantly attenuated its endonuclease activity, thus suggesting a causal link between these two functions. We built an in silico model of the interaction of MtUvrC with the Holliday junction (HJ), using a combination of homology modeling, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulations. The model predicted residues that were potentially involved in HJ binding. Six of these residues were mutated either singly or in pairs, and the resulting MtUvrC variants were purified and characterized. Among them, residues Glu595 and Arg597 in the helix-hairpin-helix motif were found to be crucial for the interaction between MtUvrC and HJ; consequently, mutations in these residues, or inhibition of ATP hydrolysis, strongly abrogated its DNA-binding and endonuclease activities. Viewed together, these findings expand the substrate specificity landscape of UvrCs and provide crucial mechanistic insights into the interplay between NER and DNA replication/recombination.

RecA and RecB: probing complexes of DNA repair proteins with mitomycin C in live Escherichia coli with single-molecule sensitivity

The RecA protein and RecBCD complex are key bacterial components for the maintenance and repair of DNA. RecBCD is a helicase-nuclease that uses homologous recombination to resolve double-stranded DNA breaks. It also facilitates coating of single-stranded DNA with RecA to form RecA filaments, a vital step in the double-stranded break DNA repair pathway. However, questions remain about the mechanistic roles of RecA and RecBCD in live cells. Here, we use millisecond super-resolved fluorescence microscopy to pinpoint the spatial localization of fluorescent reporters of RecA or RecB at physiological levels of expression in individual live Escherichia coli cells. By introducing the DNA cross-linker mitomycin C, we induce DNA damage and quantify the resulting steady state changes in stoichiometry, cellular protein copy number and molecular mobilities of RecA and RecB. We find that both proteins accumulate in molecular hotspots to effect repair, resulting in RecA stoichiometries equivalent to several hundred molecules that assemble largely in dimeric subunits before DNA damage, but form periodic subunits of approximately 3-4 molecules within mature filaments of several thousand molecules. Unexpectedly, we find that the physiologically predominant forms of RecB are not only rapidly diffusing monomers, but slowly diffusing dimers.

In vitro reconstitution of an efficient nucleotide excision repair system using mesophilic enzymes from Deinococcus radiodurans

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a universal and versatile DNA repair pathway, capable of removing a very wide range of lesions, including UV-induced pyrimidine dimers and bulky adducts. In bacteria, NER involves the sequential action of the UvrA, UvrB and UvrC proteins to release a short 12- or 13-nucleotide DNA fragment containing the damaged site. Although bacterial NER has been the focus of numerous studies over the past 40 years, a number of key questions remain unanswered regarding the mechanisms underlying DNA damage recognition by UvrA, the handoff to UvrB and the site-specific incision by UvrC. In the present study, we have successfully reconstituted in vitro a robust NER system using the UvrABC proteins from the radiation resistant bacterium, Deinococcus radiodurans. We have investigated the influence of various parameters, including temperature, salt, protein and ATP concentrations, protein purity and metal cations, on the dual incision by UvrABC, so as to find the optimal conditions for the efficient release of the short lesion-containing oligonucleotide. This newly developed assay relying on the use of an original, doubly-labelled DNA substrate has allowed us to probe the kinetics of repair on different DNA substrates and to determine the order and precise sites of incisions on the 5′ and 3′ sides of the lesion. This new assay thus constitutes a valuable tool to further decipher the NER pathway in bacteria.

Reconstitution of D radiodurans nucleotide excision repair provides insights into the kinetics of repair on different DNA substrates and determines the order and precise sites of incisions on the 5’ and 3’ sides of the lesion.

Single-molecule studies of helicases and translocases in prokaryotic genome-maintenance pathways

Helicases involved in genomic maintenance are a class of nucleic-acid dependent ATPases that convert the energy of ATP hydrolysis into physical work to execute irreversible steps in DNA replication, repair, and recombination. Prokaryotic helicases provide simple models to understand broadly conserved molecular mechanisms involved in manipulating nucleic acids during genome maintenance. Our understanding of the catalytic properties, mechanisms of regulation, and roles of prokaryotic helicases in DNA metabolism has been assembled through a combination of genetic, biochemical, and structural methods, further refined by single-molecule approaches. Together, these investigations have constructed a framework for understanding the mechanisms that maintain genomic integrity in cells. This review discusses recent single-molecule insights into molecular mechanisms of prokaryotic helicases and translocases.

DNA recombination and repair in Wolbachia: RecA and related proteins

Wolbachia is an obligate intracellular bacterium that has undergone extensive genomic streamlining in its arthropod and nematode hosts. Because the gene encoding the bacterial DNA recombination/repair protein RecA is not essential in Escherichia coli, abundant expression of this protein in a mosquito cell line persistently infected with Wolbachia strain wStri was unexpected. However, RecA's role in the lytic cycle of bacteriophage lambda provides an explanation for retention of recA in strains known to encode lambda-like WO prophages. To examine DNA recombination/repair capacities in Wolbachia, a systematic examination of RecA and related proteins in complete or nearly complete Wolbachia genomes from supergroups A, B, C, D, E, F, J and S was undertaken. Genes encoding proteins including RecA, RecF, RecO, RecR, RecG and Holliday junction resolvases RuvA, RuvB and RuvC are uniformly absent from Wolbachia in supergroup C and have reduced representation in supergroups D and J, suggesting that recombination and repair activities are compromised in nematode-associated Wolbachia, relative to strains that infect arthropods. An exception is filarial Wolbachia strain wMhie, assigned to supergroup F, which occurs in a nematode host from a poikilothermic lizard. Genes encoding LexA and error-prone polymerases are absent from all Wolbachia genomes, suggesting that the SOS functions induced by RecA-mediated activation of LexA do not occur, despite retention of genes encoding a few proteins that respond to LexA induction in E. coli. Three independent E. coli accessions converge on a single Wolbachia UvrD helicase, which interacts with mismatch repair proteins MutS and MutL, encoded in nearly all Wolbachia genomes. With the exception of MutL, which has been mapped to a eukaryotic association module in Phage WO, proteins involved in recombination/repair are uniformly represented by single protein annotations. Putative phage-encoded MutL proteins are restricted to Wolbachia supergroups A and B and show higher amino acid identity than chromosomally encoded MutL orthologs. This analysis underscores differences between nematode and arthropod-associated Wolbachia and describes aspects of DNA metabolism that potentially impact development of procedures for transformation and genetic manipulation of Wolbachia.

A Peek Inside the Machines of Bacterial Nucleotide Excision Repair

Double stranded DNA (dsDNA), the repository of genetic information in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes, exhibits a surprising instability in the intracellular environment; this fragility is exacerbated by exogenous agents, such as ultraviolet radiation. To protect themselves against the severe consequences of DNA damage, cells have evolved at least six distinct DNA repair pathways. Here, we review recent key findings of studies aimed at understanding one of these pathways: bacterial nucleotide excision repair (NER). This pathway operates in two modes: a global genome repair (GGR) pathway and a pathway that closely interfaces with transcription by RNA polymerase called transcription-coupled repair (TCR). Below, we discuss the architecture of key proteins in bacterial NER and recent biochemical, structural and single-molecule studies that shed light on the lesion recognition steps of both the GGR and the TCR sub-pathways. Although a great deal has been learned about both of these sub-pathways, several important questions, including damage discrimination, roles of ATP and the orchestration of protein binding and conformation switching, remain to be addressed.

Mycobacteria excise DNA damage in 12- or 13-nucleotide-long oligomers by prokaryotic-type dual incisions and performs transcription-coupled repair

In nucleotide excision repair, bulky DNA lesions such as UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers are removed from the genome by concerted dual incisions bracketing the lesion, followed by gap filling and ligation. So far, two dual-incision patterns have been discovered: the prokaryotic type, which removes the damage in 11-13-nucleotide-long oligomers, and the eukaryotic type, which removes the damage in 24-32-nucleotide-long oligomers. However, a recent study reported that the UvrC protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis removes damage in a manner analogous to yeast and humans in a 25-mer oligonucleotide arising from incisions at 15 nt from the 3´ end and 9 nt from the 5´ end flanking the damage. To test this model, we used the in vivo excision assay and the excision repair sequencing genome-wide repair mapping method developed in our laboratory to determine the repair pattern and genome-wide repair map of Mycobacterium smegmatis We find that M. smegmatis, which possesses homologs of the Escherichia coli uvrA, uvrB, and uvrC genes, removes cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers from the genome in a manner identical to the prokaryotic pattern by incising 7 nt 5´ and 3 or 4 nt 3´ to the photoproduct, and performs transcription-coupled repair in a manner similar to E. coli.

Real-time investigation of the roles of ATP hydrolysis by UvrA and UvrB during DNA damage recognition in nucleotide excision repair

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) stands out among other DNA repair systems for its ability to process a diverse set of unrelated DNA lesions. In bacteria, NER damage detection is orchestrated by the UvrA and UvrB proteins, which form the UvrA₂-UvrB₂ (UvrAB) damage sensing complex. The highly versatile damage recognition is accomplished in two ATP-dependent steps. In the first step, the UvrAB complex samples the DNA in search of lesion. Subsequently, the presence of DNA damage is verified within the UvrB-DNA complex after UvrA has dissociated. Although the mechanism of bacterial NER damage detection has been extensively investigated, the role of ATP binding and hydrolysis by UvrA and UvrB during this process remains incompletely understood. Here, we report a pre-steady state kinetics Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) study of the real-time interaction between UvrA, UvrB, and damaged DNA during lesion detection. By using UvrA and UvrB mutants harboring site-specific mutations in the ATP binding sites, we show for the first time that the dissociation of UvrA from the UvrAB-DNA complex does not require ATP hydrolysis by UvrB. We find that ATP hydrolysis by UvrA is not essential, but somehow facilitates the formation of UvrB-DNA complex, with ATP hydrolysis at the proximal site of UvrA playing a more critical role. Consistent with previous reports, our results indicated that the ATPase activity of UvrB is essential for the formation of UvrB-DNA complex but is not required for the binding of the UvrAB complex to DNA.

The mechanisms underlying antigenic variation and maintenance of genomic integrity in Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium

Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium are important causative agents of infections in humans. Like all other mycoplasmas, these species possess genomes that are significantly smaller than that of other prokaryotes. Moreover, both organisms possess an exceptionally compact set of DNA recombination and repair-associated genes. These genes, however, are sufficient to generate antigenic variation by means of homologous recombination between specific repetitive genomic elements. At the same time, these mycoplasmas have likely evolved strategies to maintain the stability and integrity of their 'minimal' genomes. Previous studies have indicated that there are considerable differences between mycoplasmas and other bacteria in the composition of their DNA recombination and repair machinery. However, the complete repertoire of activities executed by the putative recombination and repair enzymes encoded by Mycoplasma species is not yet fully understood. In this paper, we review the current knowledge on the proteins that likely form part of the DNA repair and recombination pathways of two of the most clinically relevant Mycoplasma species, M. pneumoniae and M. genitalium. The characterization of these proteins will help to define the minimal enzymatic requirements for creating bacterial genetic diversity (antigenic variation) on the one hand, while maintaining genomic integrity on the other.

The intrinsic ATPase activity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrC is crucial for its damage-specific DNA incision function

To ensure genome stability, bacteria have evolved a network of DNA repair mechanisms; among them, the UvrABC-dependent nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway is essential for the incision of a variety of bulky adducts generated by exogenous chemicals, UV radiation and by-products of cellular metabolism. However, very little is known about the enzymatic properties of Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrABC excinuclease complex. Furthermore, the biochemical properties of Escherichia coli UvrC (EcUvrC) are not well understood (compared to UvrA and UvrB), perhaps due to its limited availability and/or activity instability in vitro. In addition, homology modelling of M. tuberculosis UvrC (MtUvrC) revealed the presence of a putative ATP-binding pocket, although its function remains unknown. To elucidate the biochemical properties of UvrC, we constructed and purified wild-type MtUvrC and its eight variants harbouring mutations within the ATP-binding pocket. The data from DNA-binding studies suggest that MtUvrC exhibits high-affinity for duplex DNA containing a bubble or fluorescein-dT moiety, over fluorescein-adducted single-stranded DNA. Most notably, MtUvrC has an intrinsic UvrB-independent ATPase activity, which drives dual incision of the damaged DNA strand. In contrast, EcUvrC is devoid of ATPase activity; however, it retains the ability to bind ATP at levels comparable to that of MtUvrC. The ATPase-deficient variants map to residues lining the MtUvrC ATP-binding pocket. Further analysis of these variants revealed separation of function between ATPase and DNA-binding activities in MtUvrC. Altogether, these findings reveal functional diversity of the bacterial NER machinery and a paradigm for the evolution of a catalytic scaffold in UvrC.

Alkyltransferase-like protein clusters scan DNA rapidly over long distances and recruit NER to alkyl-DNA lesions

Alkylation of guanine bases in DNA is detrimental to cells due to its high mutagenic and cytotoxic potential and is repaired by the alkyltransferase AGT. Additionally, alkyltransferase-like proteins (ATLs), which are structurally similar to AGTs, have been identified in many organisms. While ATLs are per se catalytically inactive, strong evidence has suggested that ATLs target alkyl lesions to the nucleotide excision repair system (NER). Using a combination of single-molecule and ensemble approaches, we show here recruitment of UvrA, the initiating enzyme of prokaryotic NER, to an alkyl lesion by ATL. We further characterize lesion recognition by ATL and directly visualize DNA lesion search by highly motile ATL and ATL-UvrA complexes on DNA at the molecular level. Based on the high similarity of ATLs and the DNA-interacting domain of AGTs, our results provide important insight in the lesion search mechanism, not only by ATL but also by AGT, thus opening opportunities for controlling the action of AGT for therapeutic benefit during chemotherapy.

Deciphering the essentiality and function of SxSx motif in Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrB

The UvrB subunit is a central component of the UvrABC incision complex and plays a pivotal role in damage recognition, strand excision and repair synthesis. A conserved structural motif (the SxSx motif) present in UvrB is analogous to a similar motif (TxGx) in the helicases of superfamily 2, whose function is not fully understood. To elucidate the significance of the SxSx (Ser143-Val144-Ser145-Cys146) motif in Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrB (MtUvrB), different variants of MtUvrB subunit were constructed and characterized. The SxSx motif indeed was found to be essential for MtUvrB function: while Ser143 and Cys146 residues within this motif were crucial for MtUvrB function, Ser145 plays an important but less essential role. The SxSx motif-deleted mutant was drastically attenuated and three single (S143A, S145A and C146A) mutants and a double (S143A/S145A) mutant exhibited various degrees of severity in their DNA-binding, DNA helicase and ATPase activities. Taken together, these results highlight a hitherto unrecognized role for SxSx motif in the catalytic activities of UvrB.

The ATPase mechanism of UvrA2 reveals the distinct roles of proximal and distal ATPase sites in nucleotide excision repair

The UvrA₂ dimer finds lesions in DNA and initiates nucleotide excision repair. Each UvrA monomer contains two essential ATPase sites: proximal (P) and distal (D). The manner whereby their activities enable UvrA₂ damage sensing and response remains to be clarified. We report three key findings from the first pre-steady state kinetic analysis of each site. Absent DNA, a P_2ATP-D_2ADP species accumulates when the low-affinity proximal sites bind ATP and enable rapid ATP hydrolysis and phosphate release by the high-affinity distal sites, and ADP release limits catalytic turnover. Native DNA stimulates ATP hydrolysis by all four sites, causing UvrA₂ to transition through a different species, P_2ADP-D_2ADP. Lesion-containing DNA changes the mechanism again, suppressing ATP hydrolysis by the proximal sites while distal sites cycle through hydrolysis and ADP release, to populate proximal ATP-bound species, P_2ATP-D_empty and P_2ATP-D_2ATP. Thus, damaged and native DNA trigger distinct ATPase site activities, which could explain why UvrA₂ forms stable complexes with UvrB on damaged DNA compared with weaker, more dynamic complexes on native DNA. Such specific coupling between the DNA substrate and the ATPase mechanism of each site provides new insights into how UvrA₂ utilizes ATP for lesion search, recognition and repair.

UvrA and UvrC subunits of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrABC excinuclease interact independently of UvrB and DNA

The UvrABC excinuclease plays a vital role in bacterial nucleotide excision repair. While UvrA and UvrB subunits associate to form a UvrA₂ B₂ complex, interaction between UvrA and UvrC has not been demonstrated or quantified in any bacterial species. Here, using Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrA (MtUvrA), UvrB (MtUvrB) and UvrC (MtUvrC) subunits, we show that MtUvrA binds to MtUvrB and equally well to MtUvrC with submicromolar affinity. Furthermore, MtUvrA forms a complex with MtUvrC both in vivo and in vitro, independently of DNA and UvrB. Collectively, these findings reveal new insights into the pairwise relationships between the subunits of the UvrABC incision complex.

Recruitment of UvrBC complexes to UV-induced damage in the absence of UvrA increases cell survival

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is the primary mechanism for removal of ultraviolet light (UV)-induced DNA photoproducts and is mechanistically conserved across all kingdoms of life. Bacterial NER involves damage recognition by UvrA₂ and UvrB, followed by UvrC-mediated incision either side of the lesion. Here, using a combination of in vitro and in vivo single-molecule studies we show that a UvrBC complex is capable of lesion identification in the absence of UvrA. Single-molecule analysis of eGFP-labelled UvrB and UvrC in living cells showed that UV damage caused these proteins to switch from cytoplasmic diffusion to stable complexes on DNA. Surprisingly, ectopic expression of UvrC in a uvrA deleted strain increased UV survival. These data provide evidence for a previously unrealized mechanism of survival that can occur through direct lesion recognition by a UvrBC complex.

Structural and Functional Annotation of Conserved Virulent Hypothetical Proteins in Chlamydia Trachomatis: An In-Silico Approach

Background:

Though after a start of genome sequencing most of the protein sequences are deposited in databases, some proteins remain to be unannotated and functionally uncharacterized. Chlamydia trachomatis L2C is a gram-negative pathogen bacterium involved in causing severe disorders like lymphogranuloma venereum, nongonococcal urethritis, and cervicitis. <P> Objectives: Analyzing and annotating the hypothetical proteins can help to understand its pathogenicity and therapeutic hotspots. Its genome encodes a total of 221 hypothetical proteins and out of these, 14 hypothetical proteins are declared as virulent by virulence prediction server (VirulentPred). <P> Methods: In this study, the functional and structural analysis was carried out by conserve domain finding servers, protein function annotators and physiochemical properties predictors. Proteinprotein interactions studies revealed the involvement of these virulent HPs in a number of pathways, which would be of interest for drug designers. <P> Results: Classifier tool was used to classify the virulent hypothetical proteins into enzymes, membrane protein, transporter and regulatory protein groups. <P> Conclusion: Our study would help to understand the mechanisms of pathogenesis and new potential therapeutic targets for a couple of diseases caused by C. trachomatis.

Molecular mechanisms and genomic maps of DNA excision repair in Escherichia coli and humans

Nucleotide excision repair is a major DNA repair mechanism in all cellular organisms. In this repair system, the DNA damage is removed by concerted dual incisions bracketing the damage and at a precise distance from the damage. Here, we review the basic mechanisms of excision repair in Escherichia coli and humans and the recent genome-wide mapping of DNA damage and repair in these organisms at single-nucleotide resolution.

Cho Endonuclease Functions during DNA Interstrand Cross-Link Repair in Escherichia coli

DNA interstrand cross-links are complex lesions that covalently link both strands of the duplex DNA. Lesion removal is proposed to be initiated via the UvrABC nucleotide excision repair complex; however, less is known about the subsequent steps of this complex repair pathway. In this study, we characterized the contribution of nucleotide excision repair mutants to survival in the presence of psoralen-induced damage. Unexpectedly, we observed that the nucleotide excision repair mutants exhibit differential sensitivity to psoralen-induced damage, with uvrC mutants being less sensitive than either uvrA or uvrB We show that Cho, an alternative endonuclease, acts with UvrAB and is responsible for the reduced hypersensitivity of uvrC mutants. We find that Cho's contribution to survival correlates with the presence of DNA interstrand cross-links, rather than monoadducts, and operates at a step after, or independently from, the initial incision during the global repair of psoralen DNA adducts from the genome.

IMPORTANCE

DNA interstrand cross-links are complex lesions that covalently bind to both strands of the duplex DNA and whose mechanism of repair remains poorly understood. In this study, we show that Cho, an alternative endonuclease, acts with UvrAB and participates in the repair of DNA interstrand cross-links formed in the presence of photoactivated psoralens. Cho's contribution to survival correlates with the presence of DNA interstrand cross-links and operates at a step after, or independently from, the initial incision during the repair process.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrB Is a Robust DNA-Stimulated ATPase That Also Possesses Structure-Specific ATP-Dependent DNA Helicase Activity

Much is known about the Escherichia coli nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway; however, very little is understood about the proteins involved and the molecular mechanism of NER in mycobacteria. In this study, we show that Mycobacterium tuberculosis UvrB (MtUvrB), which exists in solution as a monomer, binds to DNA in a structure-dependent manner. A systematic examination of MtUvrB substrate specificity reveals that it associates preferentially with single-stranded DNA, duplexes with 3' or 5' overhangs, and linear duplex DNA with splayed arms. Whereas E. coli UvrB (EcUvrB) binds weakly to undamaged DNA and has no ATPase activity, MtUvrB possesses intrinsic ATPase activity that is greatly stimulated by both single- and double-stranded DNA. Strikingly, we found that MtUvrB, but not EcUvrB, possesses the DNA unwinding activity characteristic of an ATP-dependent DNA helicase. The helicase activity of MtUvrB proceeds in the 3' to 5' direction and is strongly modulated by a nontranslocating 5' single-stranded tail, indicating that in addition to the translocating strand it also interacts with the 5' end of the substrate. The fraction of DNA unwound by MtUvrB decreases significantly as the length of the duplex increases: it fails to unwind duplexes longer than 70 bp. These results, on one hand, reveal significant mechanistic differences between MtUvrB and EcUvrB and, on the other, support an alternative role for UvrB in the processing of key DNA replication intermediates. Altogether, our findings provide insights into the catalytic functions of UvrB and lay the foundation for further understanding of the NER pathway in M. tuberculosis.

Mechanisms of DNA Repair by Photolyase and Excision Nuclease (Nobel Lecture)

Ultraviolet light damages DNA by converting two adjacent thymines into a thymine dimer which is potentially mutagenic, carcinogenic, or lethal to the organism. This damage is repaired by photolyase and the nucleotide excision repair system in E. coli by nucleotide excision repair in humans. The work leading to these results is presented by Aziz Sancar in his Nobel Lecture.

Molecular interactions of UvrB protein and DNA from Helicobacter pylori: Insight into a molecular modeling approach

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) persevere in the human stomach, an environment in which they encounter many DNA-damaging conditions, including gastric acidity. The pathogenicity of H. pylori is enhanced by its well-developed DNA repair mechanism, thought of as 'machinery,' such as nucleotide excision repair (NER). NER involves multi-enzymatic excinuclease proteins (UvrABC endonuclease), which repair damaged DNA in a sequential manner. UvrB is the central component in prokaryotic NER, essential for damage recognition. Therefore, molecular modeling studies of UvrB protein from H. pylori are carried out with homology modeling and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The results reveal that the predicted structure is bound to a DNA hairpin with 3-bp stem, an 11-nucleotide loop, and 3-nt 3' overhang. In addition, a mutation of the Y96A variant indicates reduction in the binding affinity for DNA. Free-energy calculations demonstrate the stability of the complex and help identify key residues in various interactions based on residue decomposition analysis. Stability comparative studies between wild type and mutant protein-DNA complexes indicate that the former is relatively more stable than the mutant form. This predicted model could also be useful in designing new inhibitors for UvrB protein, as well as preventing the pathogenesis of H. pylori.

Real-time single-molecule imaging reveals a direct interaction between UvrC and UvrB on DNA tightropes

Nucleotide excision DNA repair is mechanistically conserved across all kingdoms of life. In prokaryotes, this multi-enzyme process requires six proteins: UvrA–D, DNA polymerase I and DNA ligase. To examine how UvrC locates the UvrB–DNA pre-incision complex at a site of damage, we have labeled UvrB and UvrC with different colored quantum dots and quantitatively observed their interactions with DNA tightropes under a variety of solution conditions using oblique angle fluorescence imaging. Alone, UvrC predominantly interacts statically with DNA at low salt. Surprisingly, however, UvrC and UvrB together in solution bind to form the previously unseen UvrBC complex on duplex DNA. This UvrBC complex is highly motile and engages in unbiased one-dimensional diffusion. To test whether UvrB makes direct contact with the DNA in the UvrBC–DNA complex, we investigated three UvrB mutants: Y96A, a β-hairpin deletion and D338N. These mutants affected the motile properties of the UvrBC complex, indicating that UvrB is in intimate contact with the DNA when bound to UvrC. Given the in vivo excess of UvrB and the abundance of UvrBC in our experiments, this newly identified complex is likely to be the predominant form of UvrC in the cell.

Prokaryotic nucleotide excision repair

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) has allowed bacteria to flourish in many different niches around the globe that inflict harsh environmental damage to their genetic material. NER is remarkable because of its diverse substrate repertoire, which differs greatly in chemical composition and structure. Recent advances in structural biology and single-molecule studies have given great insight into the structure and function of NER components. This ensemble of proteins orchestrates faithful removal of toxic DNA lesions through a multistep process. The damaged nucleotide is recognized by dynamic probing of the DNA structure that is then verified and marked for dual incisions followed by excision of the damage and surrounding nucleotides. The opposite DNA strand serves as a template for repair, which is completed after resynthesis and ligation.

Direct DNA Lesion Reversal and Excision Repair in Escherichia coli

Cellular DNA is constantly challenged by various endogenous and exogenous genotoxic factors that inevitably lead to DNA damage: structural and chemical modifications of primary DNA sequence. These DNA lesions are either cytotoxic, because they block DNA replication and transcription, or mutagenic due to the miscoding nature of the DNA modifications, or both, and are believed to contribute to cell lethality and mutagenesis. Studies on DNA repair in Escherichia coli spearheaded formulation of principal strategies to counteract DNA damage and mutagenesis, such as: direct lesion reversal, DNA excision repair, mismatch and recombinational repair and genotoxic stress signalling pathways. These DNA repair pathways are universal among cellular organisms. Mechanistic principles used for each repair strategies are fundamentally different. Direct lesion reversal removes DNA damage without need for excision and de novo DNA synthesis, whereas DNA excision repair that includes pathways such as base excision, nucleotide excision, alternative excision and mismatch repair, proceeds through phosphodiester bond breakage, de novo DNA synthesis and ligation. Cell signalling systems, such as adaptive and oxidative stress responses, although not DNA repair pathways per se, are nevertheless essential to counteract DNA damage and mutagenesis. The present review focuses on the nature of DNA damage, direct lesion reversal, DNA excision repair pathways and adaptive and oxidative stress responses in E. coli.

The nucleotide excision repair (NER) system of Helicobacter pylori: role in mutation prevention and chromosomal import patterns after natural transformation

Background

Extensive genetic diversity and rapid allelic diversification are characteristics of the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori, and are believed to contribute to its ability to cause chronic infections. Both a high mutation rate and frequent imports of short fragments of exogenous DNA during mixed infections play important roles in generating this allelic diversity. In this study, we used a genetic approach to investigate the roles of nucleotide excision repair (NER) pathway components in H. pylori mutation and recombination.

Results

Inactivation of any of the four uvr genes strongly increased the susceptibility of H. pylori to DNA damage by ultraviolet light. Inactivation of uvrA and uvrB significantly decreased mutation frequencies whereas only the uvrA deficient mutant exhibited a significant decrease of the recombination frequency after natural transformation. A uvrC mutant did not show significant changes in mutation or recombination rates; however, inactivation of uvrC promoted the incorporation of significantly longer fragments of donor DNA (2.2-fold increase) into the recipient chromosome. A deletion of uvrD induced a hyper-recombinational phenotype.

Conclusions

Our data suggest that the NER system has multiple functions in the genetic diversification of H. pylori, by contributing to its high mutation rate, and by controlling the incorporation of imported DNA fragments after natural transformation.

Inhibition of Gli1 results in altered c-Jun activation, inhibition of cisplatin-induced upregulation of ERCC1, XPD and XRCC1, and inhibition of platinum-DNA adduct repair

The transcription of ERCC1 and other nucleotide excision repair (NER) genes is strongly influenced by c-jun. C-jun is transcriptionally regulated by Gli proteins of the Hedgehog pathway. We therefore studied the possible relationships between Gli1, c-jun, and the upregulation of ERCC1, XPD and XRCC1 in cisplatin-resistant human ovarian cancer cells. We studied the paired human ovarian cancer cell lines A2780 and A2780-CP70. We used a shRNA construct that specifically degrades Gli1 message. Genes we assessed for mRNA and/or protein levels included: c-jun, ERCC1, XPD, XRCC1, Gli1, Gli2, SHH, IHH, GAPDH and α-tubulin. Platinum-DNA adduct repair was assessed by atomic absorbance spectrometry with Zeeman background correction. Use of the anti-Gli1 shRNA in cisplatin-resistant cells resulted in a block of the cell's ability to upregulate genes in response to cisplatin treatment, including: c-jun, ERCC1, XPD and XRCC1. This block in upregulation of c-jun was concurrent with a change in the phosphorylation pattern of the c-jun protein, shifting that pattern from a Ser63/73 dominant pattern, to a Thr91/93 dominant pattern. A2780-CP70 cells were treated at their cisplatin IC50, and DNA repair was assessed after pretreatment with anti-Gli1 shRNA or scrambled shRNA control. Control cells repaired 78% of platinum-DNA adducts at 12 h, compared with 33% repair in cells pretreated with anti-Gli1 shRNA resulting in a 2.4-fold difference. Pretreatment of A2780-CP70 cells with anti-Gli1 shRNA resulted in supra-additive cell killing with cisplatin; shifting the cisplatin IC50 (half maximal inhibitory concentration) from 30 μM to 5 μM. Pretreatment of these cells with cyclopamine did not shift the cisplatin IC50. We conclude that the transcriptional protein Gli1 is important in the upregulation of these three DNA repair genes in human ovarian cancer cells, and that Gli1 strongly influences platinum-DNA adduct repair, and cellular sensitivity to cisplatin. This Gli1 role has c-jun as an intermediate in the pathway. In all, inhibition of Gli1 by a specific shRNA inhibits the upregulation of c-jun Ser63/73, and also inhibits the upregulation of three genes essential to NER (ERCC1, XPD) and base excision repair (XRCC1).

Dynamics of lesion processing by bacterial nucleotide excision repair proteins

Single-molecule approaches permit an unrivalled view of how complex systems operate and have recently been used to understand DNA-protein interactions. These tools have enabled advances in a particularly challenging problem, the search for damaged sites on DNA. DNA repair proteins are present at the level of just a few hundred copies in bacterial cells to just a few thousand in human cells, and they scan the entire genome in search of their specific substrates. How do these proteins achieve this herculean task when their targets may differ from undamaged DNA by only a single hydrogen bond? Here we examine, using single-molecule approaches, how the prokaryotic nucleotide excision repair system balances the necessity for speed against specificity. We discuss issues at a theoretical, biological, and technical level and finally pose questions for future research.

Divalent metal ion differentially regulates the sequential nicking reactions of the GIY-YIG homing endonuclease I-BmoI

Homing endonucleases are site-specific DNA endonucleases that function as mobile genetic elements by introducing double-strand breaks or nicks at defined locations. Of the major families of homing endonucleases, the modular GIY-YIG endonucleases are least understood in terms of mechanism. The GIY-YIG homing endonuclease I-BmoI generates a double-strand break by sequential nicking reactions during which the single active site of the GIY-YIG nuclease domain must undergo a substantial reorganization. Here, we show that divalent metal ion plays a significant role in regulating the two independent nicking reactions by I-BmoI. Rate constant determination for each nicking reaction revealed that limiting divalent metal ion has a greater impact on the second strand than the first strand nicking reaction. We also show that substrate mutations within the I-BmoI cleavage site can modulate the first strand nicking reaction over a 314-fold range. Additionally, in-gel DNA footprinting with mutant substrates and modeling of an I-BmoI-substrate complex suggest that amino acid contacts to a critical GC-2 base pair are required to induce a bottom-strand distortion that likely directs conformational changes for reaction progress. Collectively, our data implies mechanistic roles for divalent metal ion and substrate bases, suggesting that divalent metal ion facilitates the re-positioning of the GIY-YIG nuclease domain between sequential nicking reactions.

Molecular mechanisms of the whole DNA repair system: a comparison of bacterial and eukaryotic systems

DNA is subjected to many endogenous and exogenous damages. All organisms have developed a complex network of DNA repair mechanisms. A variety of different DNA repair pathways have been reported: direct reversal, base excision repair, nucleotide excision repair, mismatch repair, and recombination repair pathways. Recent studies of the fundamental mechanisms for DNA repair processes have revealed a complexity beyond that initially expected, with inter- and intrapathway complementation as well as functional interactions between proteins involved in repair pathways. In this paper we give a broad overview of the whole DNA repair system and focus on the molecular basis of the repair machineries, particularly in Thermus thermophilus HB8.

Nucleases: diversity of structure, function and mechanism

Nucleases cleave the phosphodiester bonds of nucleic acids and may be endo or exo, DNase or RNase, topoisomerases, recombinases, ribozymes, or RNA splicing enzymes. In this review, I survey nuclease activities with known structures and catalytic machinery and classify them by reaction mechanism and metal-ion dependence and by their biological function ranging from DNA replication, recombination, repair, RNA maturation, processing, interference, to defense, nutrient regeneration or cell death. Several general principles emerge from this analysis. There is little correlation between catalytic mechanism and biological function. A single catalytic mechanism can be adapted in a variety of reactions and biological pathways. Conversely, a single biological process can often be accomplished by multiple tertiary and quaternary folds and by more than one catalytic mechanism. Two-metal-ion-dependent nucleases comprise the largest number of different tertiary folds and mediate the most diverse set of biological functions. Metal-ion-dependent cleavage is exclusively associated with exonucleases producing mononucleotides and endonucleases that cleave double- or single-stranded substrates in helical and base-stacked conformations. All metal-ion-independent RNases generate 2',3'-cyclic phosphate products, and all metal-ion-independent DNases form phospho-protein intermediates. I also find several previously unnoted relationships between different nucleases and shared catalytic configurations.

Folding, DNA recognition, and function of GIY-YIG endonucleases: crystal structures of R.Eco29kI

The GIY-YIG endonuclease family comprises hundreds of diverse proteins and a multitude of functions; none have been visualized bound to DNA. The structure of the GIY-YIG restriction endonuclease R.Eco29kI has been solved both alone and bound to its target site. The protein displays a domain-swapped homodimeric structure with several extended surface loops encircling the DNA. Only three side chains from each protein subunit contact DNA bases, two directly and one via a bridging solvent molecule. Both tyrosine residues within the GIY-YIG motif are positioned in the catalytic center near a putative nucleophilic water; the remainder of the active site resembles the HNH endonuclease family. The structure illustrates how the GIY-YIG scaffold has been adapted for the highly specific recognition of a DNA restriction site, in contrast to nonspecific DNA cleavage by GIY-YIG domains in homing endonucleases or structure-specific cleavage by DNA repair enzymes such as UvrC.

Differential survival of Escherichia coli uvrA, uvrB, and uvrC mutants to psoralen plus UV-A (PUVA): Evidence for uncoupled action of nucleotide excision repair to process DNA adducts

The nucleotide excision repair mechanism (NER) of Escherichia coli is responsible for the recognition and elimination of more than twenty different DNA lesions. Herein, we evaluated the in vivo role of NER in the repair of DNA adducts generated by psoralens (mono- or bi-functional) and UV-A light (PUVA) in E. coli. Cultures of wild-type E. coli K12 and mutants for uvrA, uvrB, uvrC or uvrAC genes were treated with PUVA and cell survival was determined. In parallel, kinetics of DNA repair was also evaluated by the comparison of DNA sedimentation profiles in all the strains after PUVA treatment. The uvrB mutant was more sensitive to PUVA treatment than all the other uvr mutant strains. Wild-type strain, and uvrA and uvrC mutants were able to repair PUVA-induced lesions, as seen by DNA sedimentation profiles, while the uvrB mutant was unable to repair the lesions. In addition, a quadruple fpg nth xth nfo mutant was unable to nick PUVA-treated DNA when the crude cell-free extract was used to perform plasmid nicking. These data suggest that DNA repair of PUVA-induced lesions may require base excision repair functions, despite proficient UvrABC activity. These results point to a specific role for UvrB protein in the repair of psoralen adducts, which appear to be independent of UvrA or UvrC proteins, as described for the classical UvrABC endonuclease mechanism.

Structural and mutational analyses of Deinococcus radiodurans UvrA2 provide insight into DNA binding and damage recognition by UvrAs

UvrA proteins are key actors in DNA damage repair and play an essential role in prokaryotic nucleotide excision repair (NER), a pathway that is unique in its ability to remove a broad spectrum of DNA lesions. Understanding the DNA binding and damage recognition activities of the UvrA family is a critical component for establishing the molecular basis of this process. Here we report the structure of the class II UvrA2 from Deinococcus radiodurans in two crystal forms. These structures, coupled with mutational analyses and comparison with the crystal structure of class I UvrA from Bacillus stearothermophilus, suggest a previously unsuspected role for the identified insertion domains of UvrAs in both DNA binding and damage recognition. Taken together, the available information suggests a model for how UvrA interacts with DNA and thus sheds new light on the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of UvrA in the early steps of NER.

A structural model for the damage-sensing complex in bacterial nucleotide excision repair

Nucleotide excision repair is distinguished from other DNA repair pathways by its ability to process a wide range of structurally unrelated DNA lesions. In bacteria, damage recognition is achieved by the UvrA.UvrB ensemble. Here, we report the structure of the complex between the interaction domains of UvrA and UvrB. These domains are necessary and sufficient for full-length UvrA and UvrB to associate and thereby form the DNA damage-sensing complex of bacterial nucleotide excision repair. The crystal structure and accompanying biochemical analyses suggest a model for the complete damage-sensing complex.

Targeting individual subunits of the FokI restriction endonuclease to specific DNA strands

Many restriction endonucleases are dimers that act symmetrically at palindromic DNA sequences, with each active site cutting one strand. In contrast, FokI acts asymmetrically at a non-palindromic sequence, cutting ‘top’ and ‘bottom’ strands 9 and 13 nucleotides downstream of the site. FokI is a monomeric protein with one active site and a single monomer covers the entire recognition sequence. To cut both strands, the monomer at the site recruits a second monomer from solution, but it is not yet known which DNA strand is cut by the monomer bound to the site and which by the recruited monomer. In this work, mutants of FokI were used to show that the monomer bound to the site made the distal cut in the bottom strand, whilst the recruited monomer made in parallel the proximal cut in the top strand. Procedures were also established to direct FokI activity, either preferentially to the bottom strand or exclusively to the top strand. The latter extends the range of enzymes for nicking specified strands at specific sequences, and may facilitate further applications of FokI in gene targeting.

Stimulation of UvrD helicase by UvrAB

Helicases play critical roles in all aspects of nucleic acid metabolism by catalyzing the remodeling of DNA and RNA structures. UvrD is an abundant helicase in Escherichia coli with well characterized functions in mismatch and nucleotide excision repair and a possible role in displacement of proteins such as RecA from single-stranded DNA. The mismatch repair protein MutL is known to stimulate UvrD. Here we show that the nucleotide excision repair proteins UvrA and UvrB can together stimulate UvrD-catalyzed unwinding of a range of DNA substrates containing strand discontinuities, including forked DNA substrates. The stimulation is specific for UvrD, as UvrAB failed to stimulate Rep helicase, a UvrD homologue. Moreover, although UvrAB can promote limited strand displacement, stimulation of UvrD did not require the strand displacement function of UvrAB. We conclude that UvrAB, like MutL, modulate UvrD helicase activity. This stimulation likely plays a role in DNA strand and protein displacement by UvrD in nucleotide excision repair. Promotion of UvrD-catalyzed unwinding of nicked duplexes by UvrAB may also explain the need for UvrAB and UvrD in Okazaki fragment processing in cells lacking DNA polymerase I. More generally, these data support the idea that helicase activity is regulated in vivo, with helicases acting as part of multisubunit complexes rather than in isolation.

Controlled degradation by ClpXP protease tunes the levels of the excision repair protein UvrA to the extent of DNA damage

UV irradiation damages DNA and activates expression of genes encoding proteins helpful for survival under DNA stress. These proteins are often deleterious in the absence of DNA damage. Here, we investigate mechanisms used to regulate the levels of DNA-repair proteins during recovery by studying control of the nucleotide excision repair (NER) protein UvrA. We show that UvrA is induced after UV irradiation and reaches maximum levels between approximately 20 and 120 min post UV. During post-UV recovery, UvrA levels decrease principally as a result of ClpXP-dependent protein degradation. The rate of UvrA degradation depends on the amount of unrepaired pyrimidine dimers present; this degradation rate is initially slow shortly after UV, but increases as damage is repaired. This increase in UvrA degradation as repair progresses is also influenced by protein-protein interactions. Genetic and in vitro experiments support the conclusion that UvrA-UvrB interactions antagonize degradation. In contrast, Mfd appears to act as an enhancer of UvrA turnover. Thus, our results reveal that a complex network of interactions contribute to tuning the level of UvrA in the cell in response to the extent of DNA damage and nicely mirror findings with excision repair proteins from eukaryotes, which are controlled by proteolysis in a similar manner.

Amino acid residues in the GIY-YIG endonuclease II of phage T4 affecting sequence recognition and binding as well as catalysis

Phage T4 endonuclease II (EndoII), a GIY-YIG endonuclease lacking a carboxy-terminal DNA-binding domain, was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis to investigate roles of individual amino acids in substrate recognition, binding, and catalysis. The structure of EndoII was modeled on that of UvrC. We found catalytic roles for residues in the putative catalytic surface (G49, R57, E118, and N130) similar to those described for I-TevI and UvrC; in addition, these residues were found to be important for substrate recognition and binding. The conserved glycine (G49) and arginine (R57) were essential for normal sequence recognition. Our results are in agreement with a role for these residues in forming the DNA-binding surface and exposing the substrate scissile bond at the active site. The conserved asparagine (N130) and an adjacent proline (P127) likely contribute to positioning the catalytic domain correctly. Enzymes in the EndoII subfamily of GIY-YIG endonucleases share a strongly conserved middle region (MR, residues 72 to 93, likely helical and possibly substituting for heterologous helices in I-TevI and UvrC) and a less strongly conserved N-terminal region (residues 12 to 24). Most of the conserved residues in these two regions appeared to contribute to binding strength without affecting the mode of substrate binding at the catalytic surface. EndoII K76, part of a conserved NUMOD3 DNA-binding motif of homing endonucleases found to overlap the MR, affected both sequence recognition and catalysis, suggesting a more direct involvement in positioning the substrate. Our data thus suggest roles for the MR and residues conserved in GIY-YIG enzymes in recognizing and binding the substrate.

Cooperative damage recognition by UvrA and UvrB: identification of UvrA residues that mediate DNA binding

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is responsible for the recognition and removal of numerous structurally unrelated DNA lesions. In prokaryotes, the proteins UvrA, UvrB and UvrC orchestrate the recognition and excision of aberrant lesions from DNA. Despite the progress we have made in understanding the NER pathway, it remains unclear how the UvrA dimer interacts with DNA to facilitate DNA damage recognition. The purpose of this study was to define amino acid residues in UvrA that provide binding energy to DNA. Based on conservation among approximately 300 UvrA sequences and 3D-modeling, two positively charged residues, Lys680 and Arg691, were predicted to be important for DNA binding. Mutagenesis and biochemical analysis of Bacillus caldontenax UvrA variant proteins containing site directed mutations at these residues demonstrate that Lys680 and Arg691 make a significant contribution toward the DNA binding affinity of UvrA. Replacing these side chains with alanine or negatively charged residues decreased UvrA binding 3-37-fold. Survival studies indicated that these mutant proteins complemented a WP2 uvrA(-) strain of bacteria 10-100% of WT UvrA levels. Further analysis by DNase I footprinting of the double UvrA mutant revealed that the UvrA DNA binding defects caused a slower rate of transfer of DNA to UvrB. Consequently, the mutants initiated the oligonucleotide incision assay nearly as well as WT UvrA thus explaining the observed mild phenotype in the survival assay. Based on our findings we propose a model of how UvrA binds to DNA.

Crystal structure of Bacillus stearothermophilus UvrA provides insight into ATP-modulated dimerization, UvrB interaction, and DNA binding

The nucleotide excision repair pathway corrects many structurally unrelated DNA lesions. Damage recognition in bacteria is performed by UvrA, a member of the ABC ATPase superfamily whose functional form is a dimer with four nucleotide-binding domains (NBDs), two per protomer. In the 3.2 A structure of UvrA from Bacillus stearothermophilus, we observe that the nucleotide-binding sites are formed in an intramolecular fashion and are not at the dimer interface as is typically found in other ABC ATPases. UvrA also harbors two unique domains; we show that one of these is required for interaction with UvrB, its partner in lesion recognition. In addition, UvrA contains three zinc modules, the number and ligand sphere of which differ from previously published models. Structural analysis, biochemical experiments, surface electrostatics, and sequence conservation form the basis for models of ATP-modulated dimerization, UvrA-UvrB interaction, and DNA binding during the search for lesions.

EFFECTOR OF TRANSCRIPTION2 is involved in xylem differentiation and includes a functional DNA single strand cutting domain

EFFECTORS OF TRANSCRIPTION2 (ET) are plant-specific regulatory proteins characterized by the presence of two to five C-terminal DNA- and Zn-binding repeats, and a highly conserved cysteine pattern. We describe the structural characterization of the three member Arabidopsis thaliana ET gene family and reveal some allelic sequence polymorphisms. A mutation analysis showed that AtET2 affects the expression of various KNAT genes involved in the maintenance of the undifferentiated state of cambial meristem cells. It also plays a role in the regulation of GA5 (gibberellin 3-beta-dioxygenase) and the cell-cycle-related GASA4. A correlation was established between AtET2 expression and the cellular differentiation state. AtET-GFP fusion proteins shuttle between the cytoplasm and nucleus, with the AtET2 product prevented from entering the nucleus in non-differentiating cells. Within the nucleus, AtET2 probably acts via a single strand cutting domain. A more general regulatory role for ET factors is proposed, governing cell differentiation in cambial meristems, a crucial process for the development of plant vascular tissues.