Biophysical investigations of complement receptor 2 (CD21 and CR2)-ligand interactions reveal amino acid contacts unique to each receptor-ligand pair

Identification and Characterization of chCR2, a Protein That Binds Chicken Complement Component 3d

Complement receptor type 2 (CR2) is an important membrane molecule expressed on B cells and follicular dendritic cells. Human CR2 has been shown to play a critical role in bridging the innate complement-mediated immune response with adaptive immunity by binding complement component 3d (C3d). However, the chicken CR2 (chCR2) gene has not been identified or characterized. In this study, unannotated genes that contain short consensus repeat (SCR) domains were analyzed based on RNA sequencing data for chicken bursa lymphocytes, and a gene with >80% homology to CR2 from other bird species was obtained. The gene consisted of 370 aa and was much smaller than the human CR2 gene because 10-11 SCRs were missing. The gene was then demonstrated as a chCR2 that exhibited high binding activity to chicken C3d. Further studies revealed that chCR2 interacts with chicken C3d through a binding site in its SCR1-4 region. An anti-chCR2 mAb that recognizes the epitope 258CKEISCVFPEVQ269 was prepared. Based on the anti-chCR2 mAb, the flow cytometry and confocal laser scanning microscopy experiments confirmed that chCR2 was expressed on the surface of bursal B lymphocytes and DT40 cells. Immunohistochemistry and quantitative PCR analyses further indicated that chCR2 is predominantly expressed in the spleen, bursa, and thymus, as well as in PBLs. Additionally, the expression of chCR2 varied according to the infectious bursal disease virus infection status. Collectively, this study identified and characterized chCR2 as a distinct immunological marker in chicken B cells.

Cloning and structural analysis of complement component 3d in wild birds provides insight into its functional evolution

Complement component 3 d (C3d) is the final cleavage product of the complement component C3 and serves as a crucial role in link innate and adaptive immunity, and increase B-cell sensitivity to an antigen by 1000-10000 fold. The crystal structure of human C3d revealed there are two distinct surfaces, a convex surface containing the thioester-constituting residues that mediate covalent binding to the target antigen, and a concave surface with an acidic pocket responsible for interaction with CR2. In this study, we cloned and sequenced cDNA fragment encoding C3d region from 15 wild bird species. Then, the C3d sequences from wild birds, chicken and mammals were aligned to construct phylogenetic trees. Phylogenetic tree displayed two main branches, indicating mammals and birds, but the bird C3d branch was divided into two main parts, with five wild birds (Ardeola bacchus, Zoothera, Bubo, Crossoptilon mantchuricum and Caprimulgus europaeus) clustering much closer to mammals. In addition, the C3d proteins of Ardeola bacchus, Bubo, Crossoptilon mantchuricum and Caprimulgus europaeus contained a Glu163 residue at the position at which Lys163 was found in other birds. However, Glu163 have the same charge polarity as Asp163, which is the key amino acid residue comprising the acidic pocket combined with CR2 found at this position in mammals, and Zoothera also possessed Asp163 at this position. Structure modeling analyses also verified that the C3ds of these five wild bird species exhibited the amino acid sequence and structure comprising the typical acidic pocket found in mammals that is required for combination with B cell surface receptors, which contribute electrostatic forces to interact with CR2. Our investigations indicate that some bird C3ds may already have the ability to bind with CR2 by electrostatic force, like mammals. As Ardeola bacchus, Zoothera, Bubo, Crossoptilon mantchuricum and Caprimulgus europaeus have more typical C3d concave acid pockets and thus a stronger ability to bind CR2, we speculate that these five wild birds may have a solider immunity against pathogens. Our phylogenetic and structural analyses of bird C3ds provide insights on the evolutionary divergence in the function of immune factors of avian and mammalian.

Relative Impact of Complement Receptors CD21/35 (Cr2/1) on Scrapie Pathogenesis in Mice

Mammalian prion diseases are caused by prions, unique infectious agents composed primarily, if not solely, of a pathologic, misfolded form of a normal host protein, the cellular prion protein (PrP^C). Prions replicate without a genetic blueprint, but rather contact PrP^C and coerce it to misfold into more prions, which cause neurodegeneration akin to other protein-misfolding diseases like Alzheimer’s disease. A single gene produces two alternatively spliced mRNA transcripts that encode mouse complement receptors CD21/35, which promote efficient prion replication in the lymphoid system and eventual movement to the brain. Here we show that CD21/35 are high-affinity prion receptors, but mice expressing only CD21 die from prion disease sooner than CD35-expressing mice, which contain less prions early after infection and exhibit delayed terminal disease, likely due to their less organized splenic follicles. Thus, CD21 appears to be more important for defining splenic architecture that influences prion pathogenesis.

Complement receptors 1 and 2 (CR1/2 or CD35/CD21) recognize complement-opsonized antigens to initiate innate and adaptive immunity, respectively. CD35 stimulates phagocytosis on macrophages and antigen presentation on follicular dendritic cells (FDCs). CD21 helps activate B cells as part of the B cell coreceptor with CD19 and CD81. Differential splicing of transcripts from the mouse Cr2 gene generates isoforms with both shared and unique complement binding capacities and cell-type expression. In mouse models, genetic depletion of Cr2 causes either a delay or complete prevention of prion disease, but the relative importance of CD35 versus CD21 in promoting prion disease remains unknown. Here we show that both isoforms act as high-affinity cell surface prion receptors. However, mice lacking CD21 succumbed to terminal prion disease significantly later than mice lacking CD35 or wild-type and hemizygous mice. CD21-deficient mice contained fewer splenic prions than CD35 knockout mice early after infection that contributed to delayed prion neuroinvasion and terminal disease, despite forming follicular networks closer to proximal nerves. While we observed no difference in B cell networks, PrP^C expression, or number of follicles, CD21-deficient mice formed more fragmented, less organized follicular networks with fewer Mfge8-positive FDCs and/or tingible body macrophages (TBMφs) than wild-type or CD35-deficient mice. In toto, these data demonstrate a more prominent role for CD21 for proper follicular development and organization leading to more efficient lymphoid prion replication and expedited prion disease than in mice expressing the CD35 isoform.

IMPORTANCE Mammalian prion diseases are caused by prions, unique infectious agents composed primarily, if not solely, of a pathologic, misfolded form of a normal host protein, the cellular prion protein (PrP^C). Prions replicate without a genetic blueprint, but rather contact PrP^C and coerce it to misfold into more prions, which cause neurodegeneration akin to other protein-misfolding diseases like Alzheimer’s disease. A single gene produces two alternatively spliced mRNA transcripts that encode mouse complement receptors CD21/35, which promote efficient prion replication in the lymphoid system and eventual movement to the brain. Here we show that CD21/35 are high-affinity prion receptors, but mice expressing only CD21 die from prion disease sooner than CD35-expressing mice, which contain less prions early after infection and exhibit delayed terminal disease, likely due to their less organized splenic follicles. Thus, CD21 appears to be more important for defining splenic architecture that influences prion pathogenesis.

The future of crystallography in drug discovery

INTRODUCTION

X-ray crystallography plays an important role in structure-based drug design (SBDD), and accurate analysis of crystal structures of target macromolecules and macromolecule-ligand complexes is critical at all stages. However, whereas there has been significant progress in improving methods of structural biology, particularly in X-ray crystallography, corresponding progress in the development of computational methods (such as in silico high-throughput screening) is still on the horizon. Crystal structures can be overinterpreted and thus bias hypotheses and follow-up experiments. As in any experimental science, the models of macromolecular structures derived from X-ray diffraction data have their limitations, which need to be critically evaluated and well understood for structure-based drug discovery.

AREAS COVERED

This review describes how the validity, accuracy and precision of a protein or nucleic acid structure determined by X-ray crystallography can be evaluated from three different perspectives: i) the nature of the diffraction experiment; ii) the interpretation of an electron density map; and iii) the interpretation of the structural model in terms of function and mechanism. The strategies to optimally exploit a macromolecular structure are also discussed in the context of 'Big Data' analysis, biochemical experimental design and structure-based drug discovery.

EXPERT OPINION

Although X-ray crystallography is one of the most detailed 'microscopes' available today for examining macromolecular structures, the authors would like to re-emphasize that such structures are only simplified models of the target macromolecules. The authors also wish to reinforce the idea that a structure should not be thought of as a set of precise coordinates but rather as a framework for generating hypotheses to be explored. Numerous biochemical and biophysical experiments, including new diffraction experiments, can and should be performed to verify or falsify these hypotheses. X-ray crystallography will find its future application in drug discovery by the development of specific tools that would allow realistic interpretation of the outcome coordinates and/or support testing of these hypotheses.

Human complement receptor type 1/CD35 is an Epstein-Barr Virus receptor

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) attachment to primary B cells initiates virus entry. Although CD21 is the only known receptor for EBVgp350/220, a recent report documents EBV-infected B cells from a patient genetically deficient in CD21. On normal resting B cells, CD21 forms two membrane complexes: one with CD19 and another with CD35. Whereas the CD21/CD19 complex is widely retained on immortalized and B cell tumor lines, the related complement-regulatory protein CD35 is lost. To determine the role(s) of CD35 in initial infection, we transduced a CD21-negative pre-B cell and myeloid leukemia line with CD35, CD21, or both. Cells expressing CD35 alone bound gp350/220 and became latently infected when the fusion receptor HLA II was coexpressed. Temporal, biophysical, and structural characteristics of CD35-mediated infection were distinct from CD21. Identification of CD35 as an EBV receptor uncovers a salient role in primary infection, addresses unsettled questions of virus tropism, and underscores the importance of EBVgp350/220 for vaccine development.

Human complement receptor 2 (CR2/CD21) as a receptor for DNA: implications for its roles in the immune response and the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

Human CR2 is a B cell membrane glycoprotein that plays a central role in autoimmunity. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients show reduced CR2 levels, and complete deficiency of CR2 and CR1 promotes the development of anti-DNA antibodies in mouse models of SLE. Here we show that multiple forms of DNA, including bacterial, viral and mammalian DNA, bind to human CR2 with moderately high affinity. Surface plasmon resonance studies showed that methylated DNA bound with high affinity with CR2 at a maximal K(D) of 6nM. DNA was bound to the first two domains of CR2 and this binding was blocked by using a specific inhibitory anti-CR2 mAb. DNA immunization in Cr2(-/-) mice revealed a specific defect in immune responses to bacterial DNA. CR2 can act as a receptor for DNA in the absence of complement C3 fixation to this ligand. These results suggest that CR2 plays a role in the recognition of foreign DNA during host-immune responses. This recognition function of CR2 may be a mechanism that influences the development of autoimmunity to DNA in SLE.

Applications of isothermal titration calorimetry in pure and applied research--survey of the literature from 2010

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is a biophysical technique for measuring the formation and dissociation of molecular complexes and has become an invaluable tool in many branches of science from cell biology to food chemistry. By measuring the heat absorbed or released during bond formation, ITC provides accurate, rapid, and label-free measurement of the thermodynamics of molecular interactions. In this review, we survey the recent literature reporting the use of ITC and have highlighted a number of interesting studies that provide a flavour of the diverse systems to which ITC can be applied. These include measurements of protein-protein and protein-membrane interactions required for macromolecular assembly, analysis of enzyme kinetics, experimental validation of molecular dynamics simulations, and even in manufacturing applications such as food science. Some highlights include studies of the biological complex formed by Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxin C3 and the murine T-cell receptor, the mechanism of membrane association of the Parkinson's disease-associated protein α-synuclein, and the role of non-specific tannin-protein interactions in the quality of different beverages. Recent developments in automation are overcoming limitations on throughput imposed by previous manual procedures and promise to greatly extend usefulness of ITC in the future. We also attempt to impart some practical advice for getting the most out of ITC data for those researchers less familiar with the method.

The dual role of complement in the progression of renal disease in NZB/W F(1) mice and alternative pathway inhibition

Complement plays a dual role in the progression of systemic lupus erythematosus since it has important protective functions, such as the clearance of immune complexes and apoptotic cells, but is also a mediator of renal inflammation. To investigate this balance in a clinically relevant setting, we investigated how targeted inhibition of all complement pathways vs. targeted inhibition of only the alternative pathway impacts immune and therapeutic outcomes in NZB/W F(1) mice. Following onset of proteinuria, mice were injected twice weekly with CR2-fH (inhibits alternative pathway), CR2-Crry (inhibits all pathways at C3 activation step), sCR2 (C3d targeting vehicle) or saline. Sera were analyzed every 2 weeks for anti-dsDNA antibody levels, and urinary albumin excretion was determined. Kidneys were collected for histological evaluation at 32 weeks. Compared to the control group, all CR2-fH, CR2-Crry and sCR2 treated groups showed significantly reduced serum anti-dsDNA antibody levels and strong trends towards reduced glomerular IgG deposition levels. Glomerular C3 deposition levels were also significantly reduced in all three-treated groups. However, significant reductions of disease activity (albuminuria and glomerulonephritis) were only seen in the CR2-fH treated group. These data highlight the dual role played by complement in the pathogenesis of lupus, and demonstrate a benefit of selectively inhibiting the alternative complement pathway, presumably because of protective contributions from the classical and/or lectin pathways. The sCR2 targeting moiety appears to be contributing to therapeutic outcome via modulation of autoimmunity. Furthermore, these results are largely consistent with our previous data using the MRL/lpr lupus model, thus broadening the significance of these findings.

Delineation of the complement receptor type 2-C3d complex by site-directed mutagenesis and molecular docking

The interactions between the complement receptor type 2 (CR2) and the C3 complement fragments C3d, C3dg, and iC3b are essential for the initiation of a normal immune response. A crystal-derived structure of the two N-terminal short consensus repeat (SCR1-2) domains of CR2 in complex with C3d has previously been elucidated. However, a number of biochemical and biophysical studies targeting both CR2 and C3d appear to be in conflict with these structural data. Previous mutagenesis and heteronuclear NMR spectroscopy studies directed toward the C3d-binding site on CR2 have indicated that the CR2-C3d cocrystal structure may represent an encounter/intermediate or nonphysiological complex. With regard to the CR2-binding site on C3d, mutagenesis studies by Isenman and coworkers [Isenman, D. E., Leung, E., Mackay, J. D., Bagby, S. & van den Elsen, J. M. H. (2010). Mutational analyses reveal that the staphylococcal immune evasion molecule Sbi and complement receptor 2 (CR2) share overlapping contact residues on C3d: Implications for the controversy regarding the CR2/C3d cocrystal structure. J. Immunol. 184, 1946-1955] have implicated an electronegative "concave" surface on C3d in the binding process. This surface is discrete from the CR2-C3d interface identified in the crystal structure. We generated a total of 18 mutations targeting the two (X-ray crystallographic- and mutagenesis-based) proposed CR2 SCR1-2 binding sites on C3d. Using ELISA analyses, we were able to assess binding of mutant forms of C3d to CR2. Mutations directed toward the concave surface of C3d result in substantially compromised CR2 binding. By contrast, targeting the CR2-C3d interface identified in the cocrystal structure and the surrounding area results in significantly lower levels of disruption in binding. Molecular modeling approaches used to investigate disparities between the biochemical data and the X-ray structure of the CR2-C3d cocrystal result in highest-scoring solutions in which CR2 SCR1-2 is docked within the concave surface of C3d.