Cell-surface copper transporters and superoxide dismutase 1 are essential for outgrowth during fungal spore germination

Family Identification and Functional Study of Copper Transporter Genes in Pleurotus ostreatus

The copper transport (COPT/Ctr) family plays an important role in maintaining metal homeostasis in organisms, and many species rely on Ctrs to achieve transmembrane transport via copper (Cu) uptake. At present, the Ctr family is widely studied in plants. However, there are few reports on the use of Ctrs in edible mushrooms. In this study, the Pleurotus ostreatus CCMSSC00389 strain was used as the research object, and the addition of exogenous copper ions (Cu2+) increased the temperature tolerance of mycelia, maintained the integrity of cell membranes, and increased mycelial density. In addition, four PoCtr genes were further identified and subjected to bioinformatics analysis. Further research revealed that there were differences in the expression patterns of the PoCtr genes under different temperature stresses. In addition, the biological function of PoCtr4 was further explored by constructing transformed strains. The results showed that OE-PoCtr4 enhanced the tolerance of mycelia to heat stress and H2O2. After applying heat stress (40 °C), OE-PoCtr4 promoted the recovery of mycelia. Under mild stress (32 °C), OE-PoCtr4 promoted mycelial growth, maintained cell membrane integrity, and reduced the degree of cell membrane damage caused by heat stress. It is speculated that OE-PoCtr4 may maintain the integrity of the cell membrane and enhance the heat resistance of mycelia by regulating the homeostasis of Cu2+.

The Cdc42 GAP Rga6 promotes monopolar outgrowth of spores

The molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment of the monopolar growth of fission yeast spores have been less characterized. Here, we report that the Cdc42 GTPase-activating protein (GAP) Rga6 is required for promoting monopolar growth during spore germination. The absence of Rga6 increases the number of spores that grow in a bipolar fashion. Rga6 decorates the non-growing cortical region, binds phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, and colocalizes with the phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-binding protein Opy1. Overexpression of Opy1 diminishes the cortical localization of Rga6. The characteristic localization of Rga6 on the cell cortex depends on the C-terminal PBR region of Rga6. Moreover, engineered chimera composed of the Rga6 C-terminal PBR region fused to the GAP domain of Rga3 or Rga4 are sufficient to rescue the spore growth phenotype caused by the absence of Rga6. Hence, our work establishes a paradigm in which the lipid composition of the plasma membrane directs polarized cell growth by specifying the cortical localization of a GAP protein.

Sporulation: A response to starvation in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe

The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe employs two main strategies to adapt to the environment and survive when starved for nutrients. The strategies employ sporulation via sexual differentiation and extension of the chronological lifespan. When a cell is exposed to nutrient starvation in the presence of a cell of the opposite sex, the cells undergo fusion through conjugation and sporulation through meiosis. S. pombe spores are highly resistant to diverse stresses and may survive for a very long time. In this minireview, among the various sexual differentiation processes induced by starvation, we focused on and summarized the findings of the molecular mechanisms of spore formation in fission yeast. Furthermore, comparative measurements of the chronological lifespan of stationary phase cells and G0 cells and the survival period of spore cells revealed that the spore cells survived for a long period, indicating the presence of an effective mechanism for survival. Currently, many molecules involved in sporulation and their functions are being discovered; however, our understanding of these is not complete. Further understanding of spores may not only deepen our comprehension of sexual differentiation but may also provide hints for sustaining life.

Exogenous Iron Induces NADPH Oxidases-Dependent Ferroptosis in the Conidia of Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus is saprophytic soil fungus that contaminates seed crops with the carcinogenic secondary metabolite aflatoxin, posing a significant threat to humans and animals. Ferrous sulfate is a common iron supplement that is used to the treatment of iron-deficiency anemia. Here, we identified an unexpected inhibitory role of ferrous sulfate on A. flavus. With specific fluorescent dyes, we detected several conidial ferroptosis hallmarks in conidia under the treatment of 1 mM Fe²⁺, including nonapoptosis necrosis, iron-dependent, lipid peroxide accumulation, and ROS burst. However, unlike traditional ferroptosis in mammals, Fe²⁺ triggered conidial ferroptosis in A. flavus was regulated by NADPH oxidase (NOXs) activation instead of Fenton reaction. Transcriptomic and some other bioinformatics analyses showed that NoxA in A. flavus might be a potential target of Fe²⁺, and thus led to the occurrence of conidial ferroptosis. Furthermore, noxA deletion mutant was constructed, and both ROS generation and conidial ferroptosis in ΔnoxA was reduced when exposed to Fe²⁺. Taken together, our study revealed an exogenous Fe²⁺-triggered conidial ferroptosis pathway mediated by NoxA of A. flavus, which greatly contributes to the development of an alternative strategy to control this pathogen.

Redox-Active Metal Ions and Amyloid-Degrading Enzymes in Alzheimer's Disease

Redox-active metal ions, Cu(I/II) and Fe(II/III), are essential biological molecules for the normal functioning of the brain, including oxidative metabolism, synaptic plasticity, myelination, and generation of neurotransmitters. Dyshomeostasis of these redox-active metal ions in the brain could cause Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Thus, regulating the levels of Cu(I/II) and Fe(II/III) is necessary for normal brain function. To control the amounts of metal ions in the brain and understand the involvement of Cu(I/II) and Fe(II/III) in the pathogenesis of AD, many chemical agents have been developed. In addition, since toxic aggregates of amyloid-β (Aβ) have been proposed as one of the major causes of the disease, the mechanism of clearing Aβ is also required to be investigated to reveal the etiology of AD clearly. Multiple metalloenzymes (e.g., neprilysin, insulin-degrading enzyme, and ADAM10) have been reported to have an important role in the degradation of Aβ in the brain. These amyloid degrading enzymes (ADE) could interact with redox-active metal ions and affect the pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we introduce and summarize the roles, distributions, and transportations of Cu(I/II) and Fe(II/III), along with previously invented chelators, and the structures and functions of ADE in the brain, as well as their interrelationships.

Spore Germination of the Obligate Biotroph Spongospora subterranea: Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Germination Associated Genes

For soilborne pathogens, germination of the resting or dormant propagule that enables persistence within the soil environment is a key point in pathogenesis. Spongospora subterranea is an obligate soilborne protozoan that infects the roots and tubers of potato causing root and powdery scab disease for which there are currently no effective controls. A better understanding of the molecular basis of resting spore germination of S. subterranea could be important for development of novel disease interventions. However, as an obligate biotroph and soil dwelling organism, the application of new omics techniques for the study of the pre-infection process in S. subterranea has been problematic. Here, RNA sequencing was used to analyse the reprogramming of S. subterranea resting spores during the transition to zoospores in an in-vitro model. More than 63 million mean high-quality reads per sample were generated from the resting and germinating spores. By using a combination of reference-based and de novo transcriptome assembly, 6,664 unigenes were identified. The identified unigenes were subsequently annotated based on known proteins using BLAST search. Of 5,448 annotated genes, 570 genes were identified to be differentially expressed during the germination of S. subterranea resting spores, with most of the significant genes belonging to transcription and translation, amino acids biosynthesis, transport, energy metabolic processes, fatty acid metabolism, stress response and DNA repair. The datasets generated in this study provide a basic knowledge of the physiological processes associated with spore germination and will facilitate functional predictions of novel genes in S. subterranea and other plasmodiophorids. We introduce several candidate genes related to the germination of an obligate biotrophic soilborne pathogen which could be applied to the development of antimicrobial agents for soil inoculum management.

Bioremediation mechanism and potential of copper by actively growing fungus Trichoderma lixii CR700 isolated from electroplating wastewater

Present study investigated the Cu²⁺ removal potential of Trichoderma lixii CR700, isolated from enormously heavy metal polluted electroplating wastewater. In the batch study, actively growing CR700 was able to remove 84.6% of Cu²⁺ at the concentration 10 mg/L of Cu²⁺ within 120 h after incubation and the accumulated and surface adsorbed amount of Cu was 0.51 and 0.47 mg/g of dry biomass respectively. T. lixii CR700 also showed efficient Cu²⁺ removal potential in the pH ranges from 5.0 to 8.0, in the presence of other co-occurring contaminant such as heavy metal, anions and metabolic inhibitor as well from real tannery wastewater. Alteration on cell surface of Cu²⁺ treated mycelia of T. lixii CR700 was analyzed using scanning electron microscope. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis was performed to identify the role of surface functional group in Cu²⁺ adsorption which revealed that COO^─ functional group lead Cu²⁺ adsorption onto the surface of T. lixii CR700. Thus, T. lixii CR700 uses simultaneous surface sorption and accumulation mechanism in Cu²⁺ removal and can be potentially applied for bioremediation of Cu²⁺ contaminated wastewater in ecofriendly, safe and sustainable way.

The Role of Zinc in Copper Homeostasis of Aspergillus fumigatus

Copper is an essential metal ion that performs many physiological functions in living organisms. Deletion of Afmac1, which is a copper-responsive transcriptional activator in A. fumigatus, results in a growth defect on aspergillus minimal medium (AMM). Interestingly, we found that zinc starvation suppressed the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain on AMM. In addition, the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain was recovered by copper supplementation or introduction of the CtrC gene into the Δafmac1 strain. However, chelation of copper by addition of BCS to AMM failed to recover the growth defect of the Δafmac1 strain. Through Northern blot analysis, we found that zinc starvation upregulated CtrC and CtrA2, which encode membrane copper transporters. Interestingly, we found that the conserved ZafA binding motif 5'-CAA(G)GGT-3' was present in the upstream region of CtrC and CtrA2 and that mutation of the binding motif led to failure of ZafA binding to the upstream region of CtrC and upregulation of CtrC expression under zinc starvation. Furthermore, the binding activity of ZafA to the upstream region of CtrC was inversely proportional to the zinc concentration, and copper inhibited the binding of ZafA to the upstream region of CtrC under a low zinc concentration. Taken together, these results suggest that ZafA upregulates copper metabolism by binding to the ZafA binding motif in the CtrC promoter region under low zinc concentration, thus regulating copper homeostasis. Furthermore, we found that copper and zinc interact in cells to maintain metal homeostasis.

Iron deficiency leads to repression of a non-canonical methionine salvage pathway in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

The methionine salvage pathway (MSP) regenerates methionine from 5'-methylthioadenosine (MTA). Aerobic MSP consists of six enzymatic steps. The mug14+ and adi1+ genes that are involved in the third and fifth steps of the pathway are repressed when Schizosaccharomyces pombe undergoes a transition from high- to low-iron conditions. Results consistently show that methionine auxotrophic cells (met6Δ) require iron for growth in the presence of MTA as the sole source of methionine. Inactivation of the iron-using protein Adi1 leads to defects in the utilization of MTA. In the case of the third step of the pathway, co-expression of two distinct proteins, Mta3 and Mde1, is required. These proteins are interdependent to rescue MTA-dependent growth deficit of met6Δ cells. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments showed that Mta3 is a binding partner of Mde1. Meiotic met6Δ cells co-expressing mta3+ and mde1+ or mta3+ and mug14+ produce comparable levels of spores in the presence of MTA, revealing that Mde1 and Mug14 share a common function when co-expressed with Mta3 in sporulating cells. In sum, our findings unveil several novel features of MSP, especially with respect to its regulation by iron and the discovery of a non-canonical third enzymatic step in the fission yeast.

Spore Germination Requires Ferrichrome Biosynthesis and the Siderophore Transporter Str1 in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Spore germination is a process whereby spores exit dormancy to become competent for mitotic cell division. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, one critical step of germination is the formation of a germ tube that hatches out the spore wall in a stage called outgrowth. Here, we show that iron deficiency blocks the outgrowth of germinating spores. The siderophore synthetase Sib1 and the ornithine N5-oxygenase Sib2 participate in ferrichrome biosynthesis, whereas Str1 functions as a ferrichrome transporter. Expression profiles of sib1+ , sib2+ , and str1+ transcripts reveal that they are induced shortly after induction of germination and their expression remains upregulated throughout the germination program under low-iron conditions. sib1Δ sib2Δ mutant spores are unable to form a germ tube under iron-poor conditions. Supplementation with exogenous ferrichrome suppresses this phenotype when str1+ is present. Str1 localizes at the contour of swollen spores 4 hr after induction of germination. At the onset of outgrowth, localization of Str1 changes and it moves away from the mother spore to primarily localize at the periphery of the new daughter cell. Two conserved Tyr residues (Tyr553 and Tyr567) are predicted to be located in the last extracellular loop region of Str1. Results show that these amino acid residues are critical to ensure timely completion of the outgrowth phase of spores in response to exogenous ferrichrome. Taken together, the results reveal the essential requirement of ferrichrome biosynthesis to promote outgrowth, as well as the necessity to take up ferrichrome from an external source via Str1 when ferrichrome biosynthesis is blocked.

Pathways of Pathogenicity: Transcriptional Stages of Germination in the Fatal Fungal Pathogen Rhizopus delemar

Rhizopus delemar is an invasive fungal pathogen responsible for the frequently fatal disease mucormycosis. Germination, a crucial mechanism by which infectious spores of Rhizopus delemar cause disease, is a key developmental process that transforms the dormant spore state into a vegetative one. The molecular mechanisms that underpin this transformation may be key to controlling mucormycosis; however, the regulation of germination remains poorly understood. This study describes the phenotypic and transcriptional changes that take place over the course of germination. This process is characterized by four distinct stages: dormancy, isotropic swelling, germ tube emergence, and hyphal growth. Dormant spores are shown to be transcriptionally unique, expressing a subset of transcripts absent in later developmental stages. A large shift in the expression profile is prompted by the initiation of germination, with genes involved in respiration, chitin, cytoskeleton, and actin regulation appearing to be important for this transition. A period of transcriptional consistency can be seen throughout isotropic swelling, before the transcriptional landscape shifts again at the onset of hyphal growth. This study provides a greater understanding of the regulation of germination and highlights processes involved in transforming Rhizopus delemar from a single-cellular to multicellular organism.IMPORTANCE Germination is key to the growth of many organisms, including fungal spores. Mucormycete spores exist abundantly within the environment and germinate to form hyphae. These spores are capable of infecting immunocompromised individuals, causing the disease mucormycosis. Germination from spore to hyphae within patients leads to angioinvasion, tissue necrosis, and often fatal infections. This study advances our understanding of how spore germination occurs in the mucormycetes, identifying processes we may be able to inhibit to help prevent or treat mucormycosis.

Spore Germination of Pathogenic Filamentous Fungi

Fungi, algae, plants, protozoa, and bacteria are all known to form spores, especially hardy and ubiquitous propagation structures that are also often the infectious agents of diseases. Spores can survive for thousands of years, frozen in the permafrost (Kochkina et al., 2012), with the oldest viable spores extracted after 250 million years from salt crystals (Vreeland, Rosenzweig, & Powers, 2000). Their resistance to high levels of UV, desiccation, pressure, heat, and cold enables the survival of spores in the harshest conditions (Setlow, 2016). For example, Bacillus subtilis spores can survive and remain viable after experiencing conditions similar to those on Mars (Horneck et al., 2012). Spores are disseminated through environmental factors. Wind, water, or animal carriage allow spores to be spread ubiquitously throughout the environment. Spores will break dormancy and begin to germinate once exposed to favorable conditions. Germination is the mechanism that converts the spore from a dormant biological organism to one that grows vegetatively and is capable of either sexual or asexual reproduction. The process of germination has been well studied in plants, moss, bacteria, and many fungi (Hohe & Reski, 2005; Huang & Hull, 2017; Vesty et al., 2016). Unfortunately, information on the complex signaling involved in the regulation of germination, particularly in fungi remains lacking. This chapter will discuss germination of fungal spores covering our current understanding of the regulation, signaling, outcomes, and implications of germination of pathogenic fungal spores. Owing to the morphological similarities between the spore-hyphal and yeast-hyphal transition and their relevance for disease progression, relevant aspects of fungal dimorphism will be discussed alongside spore germination in this chapter.