ERK8 down-regulates transactivation of the glucocorticoid receptor through Hic-5

Atypical MAPKs in cancer

Impaired kinase signalling leads to various diseases, including cancer. At the same time, kinases make up the majority of the druggable genome and targeting kinase activity has proven to be a successful first-line therapy for many cancers. Among the best-studied kinases are the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), which regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, motility, and survival. However, the MAPK family also contains the atypical members ERK3 (MAPK6), ERK4 (MAPK4), ERK7/ERK8 (MAPK15), and NLK that are functionally and structurally different from their conventional family members and have long been neglected. Nevertheless, in recent years, important roles in carcinogenesis, actin cytoskeleton regulation and the immune system have been discovered, underlining the physiological importance of atypical MAPKs and the need to better understand their functions. This review highlights the distinctive features of the atypical MAPKs and summarizes the evidence on their regulation, physiological roles, and potential targeting strategies for cancer therapies.

A Comprehensive Review of Protein Biomarkers for Invasive Lung Cancer

Invasion and metastasis are important hallmarks of lung cancer, and affect patients' survival. Early diagnostics of metastatic potential are important for treatment management. Recent findings suggest that the transition to an invasive phenotype causes changes in the expression of 700-800 genes. In this context, the biomarkers restricted to the specific type of cancer, like lung cancer, are often overlooked. Some well-known protein biomarkers correlate with the progression of the disease and the immunogenicity of the tumor. Most of these biomarkers are not exclusive to lung cancer because of their significant role in tumorigenesis. The dysregulation of others does not necessarily indicate cell invasiveness, as they play an active role in cell division. Clinical studies of lung cancer use protein biomarkers to assess the invasiveness of cancer cells for therapeutic purposes. However, there is still a need to discover new biomarkers for lung cancer. In the future, minimally invasive techniques, such as blood or saliva analyses, may be sufficient for this purpose. Many researchers suggest unconventional biomarkers, like circulating nucleic acids, exosomal proteins, and autoantibodies. This review paper aims to discuss the advantages and limitations of protein biomarkers of invasiveness in lung cancer, to assess their prognostic value, and propose novel biomarker candidates.

Targeting the RAS/RAF/MAPK pathway for cancer therapy: from mechanism to clinical studies

Metastatic dissemination of solid tumors, a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, underscores the urgent need for enhanced insights into the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying metastasis, chemoresistance, and the mechanistic backgrounds of individuals whose cancers are prone to migration. The most prevalent signaling cascade governed by multi-kinase inhibitors is the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, encompassing the RAS-RAF-MAPK kinase (MEK)-extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) pathway. RAF kinase is a primary mediator of the MAPK pathway, responsible for the sequential activation of downstream targets, such as MEK and the transcription factor ERK, which control numerous cellular and physiological processes, including organism development, cell cycle control, cell proliferation and differentiation, cell survival, and death. Defects in this signaling cascade are associated with diseases such as cancer. RAF inhibitors (RAFi) combined with MEK blockers represent an FDA-approved therapeutic strategy for numerous RAF-mutant cancers, including melanoma, non-small cell lung carcinoma, and thyroid cancer. However, the development of therapy resistance by cancer cells remains an important barrier. Autophagy, an intracellular lysosome-dependent catabolic recycling process, plays a critical role in the development of RAFi resistance in cancer. Thus, targeting RAF and autophagy could be novel treatment strategies for RAF-mutant cancers. In this review, we delve deeper into the mechanistic insights surrounding RAF kinase signaling in tumorigenesis and RAFi-resistance. Furthermore, we explore and discuss the ongoing development of next-generation RAF inhibitors with enhanced therapeutic profiles. Additionally, this review sheds light on the functional interplay between RAF-targeted therapies and autophagy in cancer.

Single-step genome-wide association analyses for selected infrared-predicted cheese-making traits in Walloon Holstein cows

This study aimed to perform genome-wide association study to identify genomic regions associated with milk production and cheese-making properties (CMP) in Walloon Holstein cows. The studied traits were milk yield, fat percentage, protein percentage, casein percentage (CNP), calcium content, somatic cell score (SCS), coagulation time, curd firmness after 30 min from rennet addition, and titratable acidity. The used data have been collected from 2014 to 2020 on 78,073 first-parity (485,218 test-day records), 48,766 second-parity (284,942 test-day records), and 21,948 third-parity (105,112 test-day records) Holstein cows distributed in 671 herds in the Walloon Region of Belgium. Data of 565,533 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), located on 29 Bos taurus autosomes (BTA) of 6,617 animals (1,712 males), were used. Random regression test-day models were used to estimate genetic parameters through the Bayesian Gibbs sampling method. The SNP solutions were estimated using a single-step genomic BLUP approach. The proportion of the total additive genetic variance explained by windows of 50 consecutive SNPs (with an average size of ∼216 KB) was calculated, and regions accounting for at least 1.0% of the total additive genetic variance were used to search for positional candidate genes. Heritability estimates for the studied traits ranged from 0.10 (SCS) to 0.53 (CNP), 0.10 (SCS) to 0.50 (CNP), and 0.12 (SCS) to 0.49 (CNP) in the first, second, and third parity, respectively. Genome-wide association analyses identified 6 genomic regions (BTA1, BTA14 [4 regions], and BTA20) associated with the considered traits. Genes including the SLC37A1 (BTA1), SHARPIN, MROH1, DGAT1, FAM83H, TIGD5, MROH6, NAPRT, ADGRB1, GML, LYPD2, JRK (BTA14), and TRIO (BTA20) were identified as positional candidate genes for the studied CMP. The findings of this study help to unravel the genomic background of a cow's ability for cheese production and can be used for the future implementation and use of genomic evaluation to improve the cheese-making traits in Walloon Holstein cows.

Atypical MAP kinases - new insights and directions from amoeba

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) have been the focus of many studies over the past several decades, but the understanding of one subgroup of MAPKs, orthologs of MAPK15, known as atypical MAPKs, has lagged behind others. In most organisms, specific activating signals or downstream responses of atypical MAPK signaling pathways have not yet been identified even though these MAPKs are associated with many eukaryotic processes, including cancer and embryonic development. In this Review, we discuss recent studies that are shedding new light on both the regulation and function of atypical MAPKs in different organisms. In particular, the analysis of the atypical MAPK in the amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has revealed important roles in chemotactic responses and gene regulation. The rapid and transient phosphorylation of the atypical MAPK in these responses suggest a highly regulated activation mechanism in vivo despite the ability of atypical MAPKs to autophosphorylate in vitro. Atypical MAPK function can also impact the activation of other MAPKs in amoeba. These advances are providing new perspectives on possible MAPK roles in animals that have not been previously considered, and this might lead to the identification of potential targets for regulating cell movement in the treatment of diseases.

Cellular and physiological roles of the conserved atypical MAP kinase ERK7

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 7 (ERK7), also known as ERK8 and MAPK15, is an atypical member of the MAP kinase family. Compared with other MAP kinases, the biological roles of ERK7 remain poorly understood. Recent work, however, has revealed several novel functions for ERK7. These include a highly conserved essential role in ciliogenesis, the ability to control cell growth, metabolism and autophagy, as well as the maintenance of genomic integrity. ERK7 functions through phosphorylation-dependent and -independent mechanisms and it is activated by cellular stressors, including DNA-damaging agents, and nutrient deprivation. Here, we summarize recent developments in understanding ERK7 function, emphasizing its conserved roles in cellular and physiological regulation.

Transcriptional upregulation of MAPK15 by NF-κB signaling boosts the efficacy of combination therapy with cisplatin and TNF-α

The efficacy of cisplatin in treating advanced non-small cell lung cancer is limited mainly because of insensitivity and/or acquired resistance. MAPK15, previously shown by us to enhance the sensitivity of the anti-cancer drug arsenic trioxide, could also enhance the sensitivity of other anti-cancer drugs. Here, we explore the potential role of MAPK15 in chemosensitivity to cisplatin in human lung cancer cells. Our results indicated that the expression level of MAPK15 was positively correlated with cisplatin sensitivity through affecting the DNA repair capacity of cisplatin-treated cells. The expression of MAPK15 was transcriptionally regulated by the TNF-α-activated NF-κB signaling pathway, and TNF-α synergized with cisplatin, in a MAPK15-dependent manner, to exert cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, levels of TNF-α dictate the responsiveness/sensitivity of lung cancer cells to cisplatin by transcriptionally upregulating MAPK15 to enhance chemosensitivity, suggesting manipulation of MAPK15 as a strategy to improve the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs.

An atypical MAPK regulates translocation of a GATA transcription factor in response to chemoattractant stimulation

The Dictyostelium atypical mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) Erk2 is required for chemotactic responses to cAMP as amoeba undergo multicellular development. In this study, Erk2 was found to be essential for the cAMP-stimulated translocation of the GATA transcription factor GtaC as indicated by the distribution of a GFP-GtaC reporter. Erk2 was also found to be essential for the translocation of GtaC in response to external folate, a foraging signal that directs the chemotaxis of amoeba to bacteria. Erk1, the only other Dictyostelium MAPK, was not required for the GtaC translocation to either chemoattractant, indicating that GFP-GtaC is a kinase translocation reporter specific for atypical MAPKs. The translocation of GFP-GtaC in response to folate was absent in mutants lacking the folate receptor Far1 or the coupled G-protein subunit Gα4. Loss of GtaC function resulted in enhanced chemotactic movement to folate, suggesting that GtaC suppresses responses to folate. The alteration of four Erk2-preferred phosphorylation sites in GtaC impacted the translocation of GFP-GtaC in response to folate and the GFP-GtaC-mediated rescue of aggregation and development of gtaC- cells. The ability of different chemoattractants to stimulate Erk2-regulated GtaC translocation suggests that atypical MAPK-mediated regulation of transcription factors can contribute to different cell fates.

High-dose dexamethasone injection disordered metabolism and multiple protein kinases expression in the mouse kidney

Glucocorticoids (GCs) have been widely used in clinical treatment as anti-inflammatory, anti-shock and immunosuppressive medicines. However, the effect of excessive GCs on immune response and metabolism of kidney remains unclear. Here, we profiled the gene expression of kidney from mice with high-dose dexamethasone (DEX) treatment. A total of 1193 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened in DEX treatment group compared with the saline group, including 715 down- regulated and 478 up-regulated. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analyses of these DEGs showed extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, cell adhesion molecules signaling pathway were significantly enriched, and that the vast majority of DEGs were involved in monocarboxylic acid metabolism, leukocyte cell-cell adhesion and fatty acid metabolism. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) revealed that DEGs were strongly associated with immune-response and cell adhesion gene sets, such as Fc γ R-mediated phagocytosis, leukocyte transendothelial migration, T-cell receptor signaling pathway, cell adhesion, ECM-receptor interaction and focal adhesion-associated pathways. KEGG pathway analysis of differentially expressed kinases (DEKs) showed T-cell receptor and forkhead box class O signaling pathway were enriched. Furthermore, we found multiple protein kinases expression were dysregulated greatly after dexamethasone treatment, including classical effector of GCs stimulation-serum and GC-regulated kinase. These protein kinases are involved in multiple signaling pathways in mice kidney, such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt signaling pathway. We profiled the gene expression of the kidney from high-dose dexamethasone-treated mice and provided important information for further study the mechanism of side effects of GCs in clinical therapy.

Extracellular-Signal Regulated Kinase: A Central Molecule Driving Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Cancer

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a reversible cellular process, characterized by changes in gene expression and activation of proteins, favoring the trans-differentiation of the epithelial phenotype to a mesenchymal phenotype. This process increases cell migration and invasion of tumor cells, progression of the cell cycle, and resistance to apoptosis and chemotherapy, all of which support tumor progression. One of the signaling pathways involved in tumor progression is the MAPK pathway. Within this family, the ERK subfamily of proteins is known for its contributions to EMT. The ERK subfamily is divided into typical (ERK 1/2/5), and atypical (ERK 3/4/7/8) members. These kinases are overexpressed and hyperactive in various types of cancer. They regulate diverse cellular processes such as proliferation, migration, metastasis, resistance to chemotherapy, and EMT. In this context, in vitro and in vivo assays, as well as studies in human patients, have shown that ERK favors the expression, function, and subcellular relocalization of various proteins that regulate EMT, thus promoting tumor progression. In this review, we discuss the mechanistic roles of the ERK subfamily members in EMT and tumor progression in diverse biological systems.

MAPK15 upregulation promotes cell proliferation and prevents DNA damage in male germ cell tumors

Germ cell tumors (GCT) are the most common malignancies in males between 15 and 35 years of age. Despite the high cure rate, achieved through chemotherapy and/or surgery, the molecular basis of GCT etiology is still largely obscure. Here, we show a positive correlation between MAPK15 (ERK8; ERK7) expression and specific GCT subtypes, with the highest levels found in the aggressive embryonal carcinomas (EC). Indeed, in corresponding cellular models for EC, MAPK15 enhanced tumorigenicity in vivo and promoted cell proliferation in vitro, supporting a role for this kinase in human GCT. At molecular level, we demonstrated that endogenous MAPK15 is necessary to sustain cell cycle progression of EC cells, by limiting p53 activation and preventing the triggering of p53-dependent mechanisms resulting in cell cycle arrest.

To understand MAPK15-dependent mechanisms impinging on p53 activation, we demonstrate that this kinase efficiently protects cells from DNA damage. Moreover, we show that the ability of MAPK15 to control the autophagic process is necessary for basal management of DNA damage and for tumor formation controlled by the kinase.

In conclusion, our findings suggest that MAPK15 overexpression may contribute to the malignant transformation of germ cells by controlling a “stress support” autophagic pathway, able to prevent DNA damage and the consequent activation of the p53 tumor suppressor. Moreover, in light of these results, MAPK15-specific inhibitors might represent new tools to enhance the therapeutic index of cytotoxic therapy in GCT treatment, and to increase the sensitivity to DNA-damaging drugs in other chemotherapy-resistant human tumors.

Regulation of human mitogen-activated protein kinase 15 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase 7/8) and its functions: A recent update

Mitogen-activated protein kinase 15 (MAPK15), originally also known as extracellular signal-regulated kinase 7/8, is the most recently identified atypical MAPK and the least studied so far. Examinations of the role of MAPK15 in various cell lines and model systems indicate that MAPK15 participates in a variety of cellular activities such as promoting cell proliferation, cell transformation, and apoptosis; stimulating autophagy; regulating cell division, ciliogenesis, and protein secretion; and maintaining genome stability. As multiple roles of MAPK15 were observed among these studies, therefore, it remains unclear whether MAPK15 acts as a proto-oncogene or tumor suppressor. Here, the recent literature on human MAPK15 and the resulting functions will be discussed.

The Atypical MAP Kinase SWIP-13/ERK8 Regulates Dopamine Transporters through a Rho-Dependent Mechanism

The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) regulates multiple behaviors across phylogeny, with disrupted DA signaling in humans associated with addiction, attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, and Parkinson's disease. The DA transporter (DAT) imposes spatial and temporal limits on DA action, and provides for presynaptic DA recycling to replenish neurotransmitter pools. Molecular mechanisms that regulate DAT expression, trafficking, and function, particularly in vivo, remain poorly understood, though recent studies have implicated rho-linked pathways in psychostimulant action. To identify genes that dictate the ability of DAT to sustain normal levels of DA clearance, we pursued a forward genetic screen in Caenorhabditis elegans based on the phenotype swimming-induced paralysis (Swip), a paralytic behavior observed in hermaphrodite worms with loss-of-function dat-1 mutations. Here, we report the identity of swip-13, which encodes a highly conserved ortholog of the human atypical MAP kinase ERK8. We present evidence that SWIP-13 acts presynaptically to insure adequate levels of surface DAT expression and DA clearance. Moreover, we provide in vitro and in vivo evidence supporting a conserved pathway involving SWIP-13/ERK8 activation of Rho GTPases that dictates DAT surface expression and function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Signaling by the neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) is tightly regulated by the DA transporter (DAT), insuring efficient DA clearance after release. Molecular networks that regulate DAT are poorly understood, particularly in vivo Using a forward genetic screen in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, we implicate the atypical mitogen activated protein kinase, SWIP-13, in DAT regulation. Moreover, we provide in vitro and in vivo evidence that SWIP-13, as well as its human counterpart ERK8, regulate DAT surface availability via the activation of Rho proteins. Our findings implicate a novel pathway that regulates DA synaptic availability and that may contribute to risk for disorders linked to perturbed DA signaling. Targeting this pathway may be of value in the development of therapeutics in such disorders.

Purification and characterization of a highly specific polyclonal antibody against human extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 and its detection in lung cancer

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 (ERK8), proposed as a novel potential therapeutic target for cancer, has been implicated in cell transformation, apoptosis, the protection of genomic integrity, and autophagy. To facilitate ERK8 research, a highly specific anti-ERK8 antibody is needed. In this article, we use the Immune Epitope Database and Analysis Resource online tool to predict B-cell epitopes of human ERK8 protein, and choose a 28 aa-peptide sequence to generate the GST-ERK8(28aa) fusion protein as the antigen for developing polyclonal antibody against ERK8. The specificity and sensitivity of anti-ERK8 antibody were robustly validated by immunoblotting, immunocytochemical and immunohistochemical analyses; and we found that both the endogenous and ectopically-expressed human ERK8 proteins can be recognized by our anti-ERK8 antibody. This suggested that our characterized anti-ERK8 antibody will be a valuable tool for the elucidation of the distribution of ERK8 at cellular and histological levels. Finally, our tissue array analysis also demonstrated that the ERK8 protein was localized in both the nucleus and cytoplasm of human lung cancers.

Discovery and antiparasitic activity of AZ960 as a Trypanosoma brucei ERK8 inhibitor

Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is a lethal, vector-borne disease caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Therapeutic strategies for this neglected tropical disease suffer from disadvantages such as toxicity, high cost, and emerging resistance. Therefore, new drugs with novel modes of action are needed. We screened cultured T. brucei against a focused kinase inhibitor library to identify promising bioactive compounds. Among the ten hits identified from the phenotypic screen, AZ960 emerged as the most promising compound with potent antiparasitic activity (IC50=120nM) and was shown to be a selective inhibitor of an essential gene product, T. brucei extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 (TbERK8). We report that AZ960 has a Ki of 1.25μM for TbERK8 and demonstrate its utility in establishing TbERK8 as a potentially druggable target in T. brucei.

Hic-5 influences genomic and non-genomic actions of the androgen receptor in prostate myofibroblasts

There is extensive knowledge of androgen receptor (AR) signaling in cancer cells, but less regarding androgen action in stromal cells of the tumor microenvironment. We report here the genome-wide effects of a stromal cell specific molecular adapter and AR coregulator, hydrogen peroxide-inducible gene 5 (Hic-5/TGFB1I1), on AR function in prostate myofibroblasts. Following androgen stimulation, Hic-5 rapidly translocates to the nucleus, coincident with increased phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase. As a coregulator, Hic-5 acted to amplify or inhibit regulation of approximately 50% of AR target genes, affected androgen regulation of growth, cell adhesion, motility and invasion. These data suggest Hic-5 as a transferable adaptor between focal adhesions and the nucleus of prostate myofibroblasts, where it acts a key mediator of the specificity and sensitivity of AR signaling. We propose a model in which Hic-5 coordinates AR signaling with adhesion and extracellular matrix contacts to regulate cell behavior in the tumor microenvironment.

ERK8 is a negative regulator of O-GalNAc glycosylation and cell migration

ER O-glycosylation can be induced through relocalisation GalNAc-Transferases from the Golgi. This process markedly stimulates cell migration and is constitutively activated in more than 60% of breast carcinomas. How this activation is achieved remains unclear. Here, we screened 948 signalling genes using RNAi and imaging. We identified 12 negative regulators of O-glycosylation that all control GalNAc-T sub-cellular localisation. ERK8, an atypical MAPK with high basal kinase activity, is a strong hit and is partially localised at the Golgi. Its inhibition induces the relocation of GalNAc-Ts, but not of KDEL receptors, revealing the existence of two separate COPI-dependent pathways. ERK8 down-regulation, in turn, activates cell motility. In human breast and lung carcinomas, ERK8 expression is reduced while ER O-glycosylation initiation is hyperactivated. In sum, ERK8 appears as a constitutive brake on GalNAc-T relocalisation, and the loss of its expression could drive cancer aggressivity through increased cell motility.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01828.001

The likelihood of an individual being able to recover from cancer depends on: where the cancer is within the body, how quickly the disease is detected and how quickly treatment is started. Cancers that have spread from their original location to another part of the body are particular challenging to treat, and cause the vast majority of cancer deaths every year.

Treatments that can recognize and eradicate cancer cells, while leaving nearby healthy cells untouched, are still needed—and so there has been a lot of research into identifying the key differences between healthy cells and cancer cells. For several decades, researchers have been aware that cancer cells have more proteins coated with modified sugars on their cell surfaces than healthy cells. This is caused by the enzymes that add these sugars to the proteins relocating from one location within the cell, the Golgi apparatus, to another, called the endoplasmic reticulum. These specific ‘sugar-coated’ proteins are known to encourage cancer cells to migrate and invade new tissues, but the mechanisms that regulate the addition of these sugar molecules to proteins remains poorly understood.

Now Chia et al. have discovered 12 molecules that regulate this process, including an enzyme called ERK8 that is found at the Golgi apparatus. ERK8 is shown to prevent the relocation of the sugar-adding enzymes from the Golgi to the endoplasmic reticulum, thereby restricting the production of sugar-coated proteins that help the cancer cells to spread within the body. By identifying 12 potential targets for new therapeutics aimed at preventing the spread of cancer, the work of Chia et al. could ultimately help to improve the chances of patients recovering from certain cancers.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01828.002

Structure prediction and validation of the ERK8 kinase domain

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 (ERK8) has been already implicated in cell transformation and in the protection of genomic integrity and, therefore, proposed as a novel potential therapeutic target for cancer. In the absence of a crystal structure, we developed a three-dimensional model for its kinase domain. To validate our model we applied a structure-based virtual screening protocol consisting of pharmacophore screening and molecular docking. Experimental characterization of the hit compounds confirmed that a high percentage of the identified scaffolds was able to inhibit ERK8. We also confirmed an ATP competitive mechanism of action for the two best-performing molecules. Ultimately, we identified an ERK8 drug-resistant “gatekeeper” mutant that corroborated the predicted molecular binding mode, confirming the reliability of the generated structure. We expect that our model will be a valuable tool for the development of specific ERK8 kinase inhibitors.

MAPK15/ERK8 stimulates autophagy by interacting with LC3 and GABARAP proteins

Macroautophagy (hereafter referred to as autophagy) is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process necessary for normal recycling of cellular constituents and for appropriate response to cellular stress. Although several genes belonging to the core molecular machinery involved in autophagosome formation have been discovered, relatively little is known about the nature of signaling networks controlling autophagy upon intracellular or extracellular stimuli. We discovered ATG8-like proteins (MAP1LC3B, GABARAP and GABARAPL1) as novel interactors of MAPK15/ERK8, a MAP kinase involved in cell proliferation and transformation. Based on the role of these proteins in the autophagic process, we demonstrated that MAPK15 is indeed localized to autophagic compartments and increased, in a kinase-dependent fashion, ATG8-like proteins lipidation, autophagosome formation and SQSTM1 degradation, while decreasing LC3B inhibitory phosphorylation. Interestingly, we also identified a conserved LC3-interacting region (LIR) in MAPK15 responsible for its interaction with ATG8-like proteins, for its localization to autophagic structures and, consequently, for stimulation of the formation of these compartments. Furthermore, we reveal that MAPK15 activity was induced in response to serum and amino-acid starvation and that this stimulus, in turn, required endogenous MAPK15 expression to induce the autophagic process. Altogether, these results suggested a new function for MAPK15 as a regulator of autophagy, acting through interaction with ATG8 family proteins. Also, based on the key role of this process in several human diseases, these results supported the use of this MAP kinase as a potential novel therapeutic target.

The secret life of kinases: functions beyond catalysis

Protein phosphorylation participates in the regulation of all fundamental biological processes, and protein kinases have been intensively studied. However, while the focus was on catalytic activities, accumulating evidence suggests that non-catalytic properties of protein kinases are essential, and in some cases even sufficient for their functions. These non-catalytic functions include the scaffolding of protein complexes, the competition for protein interactions, allosteric effects on other enzymes, subcellular targeting, and DNA binding. This rich repertoire often is used to coordinate phosphorylation events and enhance the specificity of substrate phosphorylation, but also can adopt functions that do not rely on kinase activity. Here, we discuss such kinase independent functions of protein and lipid kinases focussing on kinases that play a role in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, and motility.

ERK7 is a negative regulator of protein secretion in response to amino-acid starvation by modulating Sec16 membrane association

RNAi screening for kinases regulating the functional organization of the early secretory pathway in Drosophila S2 cells has identified the atypical Mitotic-Associated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Extracellularly regulated kinase 7 (ERK7) as a new modulator. We found that ERK7 negatively regulates secretion in response to serum and amino-acid starvation, in both Drosophila and human cells. Under these conditions, ERK7 turnover through the proteasome is inhibited, and the resulting higher levels of this kinase lead to a modification in a site within the C-terminus of Sec16, a key ER exit site component. This post-translational modification elicits the cytoplasmic dispersion of Sec16 and the consequent disassembly of the ER exit sites, which in turn results in protein secretion inhibition. We found that ER exit site disassembly upon starvation is TOR complex 1 (TORC1) independent, showing that under nutrient stress conditions, cell growth is not only inhibited at the transcriptional and translational levels, but also independently at the level of secretion by inhibiting the membrane flow through the early secretory pathway. These results reveal the existence of new signalling circuits participating in the complex regulation of cell growth.

Activation and function of the MAPKs and their substrates, the MAPK-activated protein kinases

The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) regulate diverse cellular programs by relaying extracellular signals to intracellular responses. In mammals, there are more than a dozen MAPK enzymes that coordinately regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, motility, and survival. The best known are the conventional MAPKs, which include the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun amino-terminal kinases 1 to 3 (JNK1 to -3), p38 (α, β, γ, and δ), and ERK5 families. There are additional, atypical MAPK enzymes, including ERK3/4, ERK7/8, and Nemo-like kinase (NLK), which have distinct regulation and functions. Together, the MAPKs regulate a large number of substrates, including members of a family of protein Ser/Thr kinases termed MAPK-activated protein kinases (MAPKAPKs). The MAPKAPKs are related enzymes that respond to extracellular stimulation through direct MAPK-dependent activation loop phosphorylation and kinase activation. There are five MAPKAPK subfamilies: the p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK), the mitogen- and stress-activated kinase (MSK), the MAPK-interacting kinase (MNK), the MAPK-activated protein kinase 2/3 (MK2/3), and MK5 (also known as p38-regulated/activated protein kinase [PRAK]). These enzymes have diverse biological functions, including regulation of nucleosome and gene expression, mRNA stability and translation, and cell proliferation and survival. Here we review the mechanisms of MAPKAPK activation by the different MAPKs and discuss their physiological roles based on established substrates and recent discoveries.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 (ERK8) controls estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα) cellular localization and inhibits its transcriptional activity

ERK8 (MAPK15) is a large MAP kinase already implicated in the regulation of the functions of different nuclear receptors and in cellular proliferation and transformation. Here, we identify ERRα as a novel ERK8-interacting protein. As a consequence of such interaction, ERK8 induces CRM1-dependent translocation of ERRα to the cytoplasm and inhibits its transcriptional activity. Also, we identify in ERK8 two LXXLL motifs, typical of agonist-bound nuclear receptor corepressors, as necessary features for this MAP kinase to interact with ERRα and to regulate its cellular localization and transcriptional activity. Ultimately, we demonstrate that ERK8 is able to counteract, in immortalized human mammary cells, ERRα activation induced by the EGF receptor pathway, often deregulated in breast cancer. Altogether, these results reveal a novel function for ERK8 as a bona fide ERRα corepressor, involved in control of its cellular localization by nuclear exclusion, and suggest a key role for this MAP kinase in the regulation of the biological activities of this nuclear receptor.

Activation and Function of the MAPKs and Their Substrates, the MAPK-Activated Protein Kinases

The mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) regulate diverse cellular programs by relaying extracellular signals to intracellular responses. In mammals, there are more than a dozen MAPK enzymes that coordinately regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, motility, and survival. The best known are the conventional MAPKs, which include the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun amino-terminal kinases 1 to 3 (JNK1 to -3), p38 (α, β, γ, and δ), and ERK5 families. There are additional, atypical MAPK enzymes, including ERK3/4, ERK7/8, and Nemo-like kinase (NLK), which have distinct regulation and functions. Together, the MAPKs regulate a large number of substrates, including members of a family of protein Ser/Thr kinases termed MAPK-activated protein kinases (MAPKAPKs). The MAPKAPKs are related enzymes that respond to extracellular stimulation through direct MAPK-dependent activation loop phosphorylation and kinase activation. There are five MAPKAPK subfamilies: the p90 ribosomal S6 kinase (RSK), the mitogen- and stress-activated kinase (MSK), the MAPK-interacting kinase (MNK), the MAPK-activated protein kinase 2/3 (MK2/3), and MK5 (also known as p38-regulated/activated protein kinase [PRAK]). These enzymes have diverse biological functions, including regulation of nucleosome and gene expression, mRNA stability and translation, and cell proliferation and survival. Here we review the mechanisms of MAPKAPK activation by the different MAPKs and discuss their physiological roles based on established substrates and recent discoveries.

The MAP kinase signaling cascades: a system of hundreds of components regulates a diverse array of physiological functions

Sequential activation of kinases within the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase (MAPK) cascades is a common, and evolutionary-conserved mechanism of signal transduction. Four MAPK cascades have been identified in the last 20 years and those are usually named according to the MAPK components that are the central building blocks of each of the cascades. These are the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), c-Jun N-Terminal kinase (JNK), p38, and ERK5 cascades. Each of these cascades consists of a core module of three tiers of protein kinases termed MAPK, MAPKK, and MAP3K, and often two additional tiers, the upstream MAP4K and the downstream MAPKAPK, which can complete five tiers of each cascade in certain cell lines or stimulations. The transmission of the signal via each cascade is mediated by sequential phosphorylation and activation of the components in the sequential tiers. These cascades cooperate in transmitting various extracellular signals and thus control a large number of distinct and even opposing cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation, survival, development, stress response, and apoptosis. One way by which the specificity of each cascade is regulated is through the existence of several distinct components in each tier of the different cascades. About 70 genes, which are each translated to several alternatively spliced isoforms, encode the entire MAPK system, and allow the wide array of cascade's functions. These components, their regulation, as well as their involvement together with other mechanisms in the determination of signaling specificity by the MAPK cascade is described in this review. Mis-regulation of the MAPKs signals usually leads to diseases such as cancer and diabetes; therefore, studying the mechanisms of specificity-determination may lead to better understanding of these signaling-related diseases.

Ligand interaction scan (LIScan) in the study of ERK8

ERK8 is the most recent addition for the MAPK family, and its mechanism of activation and function are not yet known, mainly due to the lack of any known physiological stimulator. In this report, we describe the preparation of reagents for the use of a novel method, the ligand interaction scan (LIScan), to study the function of this protein kinase. We generated a set of mutants of ERK8, and identified inhibited as well as stimulated forms. By specifically inhibiting or stimulating the mutants of ERK8, we show that the ERK8-induced inhibition of proliferation is altered. Moreover, we used the developed mutants to show for the first time that ERK8 translocates to the nucleus upon activation. The use of methods such as the ligand interaction scan may thus promote the analyses of the functions of uncharacterized proteins such as ERK8, and possibly help in controlling the activity of target proteins in various experimental systems and applications.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8-mediated c-Jun phosphorylation increases tumorigenesis of human colon cancer

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase 8 (ERK8), a recently discovered member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase protein family, has been less studied than other family members, leaving its physiologic functions mostly unknown. The biological consequences of overexpression of ERK8 in JB6 Cl41 epidermal skin cells or knockdown of ERK8 in HCT15 colorectal cancer cells was studied. Kinase assays and transient transfection experiments were performed to study the signaling pathway between ERK8 and c-Jun. We found that ERK8 is relatively highly expressed in HCT15 human colorectal cancer cells and plays an important role in the promotion and progression of colorectal cancer. ERK8 promoted neoplastic transformation, and knockdown of ERK8 in HCT15 colorectal cancer cells reduced the tumorigenic properties of these cell lines. Furthermore, a direct interaction between ERK8 and c-Jun was shown. With epidermal growth factor treatment, overexpression of ERK8 in JB6 Cl41 cells caused an increased phosphorylation of c-Jun at Ser(63) and Ser(73), resulting in increased activator protein-1 transactivation. In contrast, knockdown of ERK8 in HCT15 colorectal cancer cells blocked c-Jun phosphorylation. The interaction between ERK8 and c-Jun seems to increase the tumorigenic properties of HCT15 colorectal cancer cells. Thus, ERK8-regulated signaling might serve as a potential therapeutic target in colorectal cancer.

Hic-5 as a regulator of endothelial cell morphology and connective tissue growth factor gene expression

The functional role of the LIM-domain protein Hic-5 was investigated in microvascular endothelial cells using a siRNA approach. Knock down of Hic-5 reduced endothelial cell spreading and impaired structural organization of the cells on basement membrane extracts. Furthermore, Hic-5 was involved in the regulation of the multifunctional protein connective tissue growth factor (CTGF, CCN2). Upon Hic-5 down-regulation, induction of CTGF by lysophosphatidic acid or colchicine was reduced. Inhibition of CTGF expression was even more pronounced in cells treated with transforming growth factor beta and inhibitors of histone deacetylases. Treatment of endothelial cells with Hic-5 siRNA reduced CTGF promoter activity. Mutation analyses of the promoter revealed transcription factors binding to the basic control element as part of the proposed Hic-5-modulated transcription complex. Further analyses showed down-regulation of Hic-5 protein upon overnight treatment with inhibitors of histone deacetylases. These data suggest that the reduced expression of Hic-5 may contribute to the anti-angiogenic effects of histone deacetylase inhibitors.

Genetic influences on asthma susceptibility in the developing lung

Asthma is the leading serious pediatric chronic illness in the United States, affecting 7.1 million children. The prevalence of asthma in children under 4 years of age has increased dramatically in the last 2 decades. Existing evidence suggests that this increase in prevalence derives from early environmental exposures acting on a pre-existing asthma-susceptible genotype. We studied the origins of asthma susceptibility in developing lung in rat strains that model the distinct phenotypes of airway hyperresponsiveness (Fisher rats) and atopy (brown Norway [BN] rats). Postnatal BN rat lungs showed increased epithelial proliferation and tracheal goblet cell hyperplasia. Fisher pups showed increased lung resistance at age 2 weeks, with elevated neutrophils throughout the postnatal period. Diverse transcriptomic signatures characterized the distinct respiratory phenotypes of developing lung in both rat models. Linear regression across age and strain identified developmental variation in expression of 1,376 genes, and confirmed both strain and temporal regulation of lung gene expression. Biological processes that were heavily represented included growth and development (including the T Box 1 transcription factor [Tbx5], the epidermal growth factor receptor [Egfr], the transforming growth factor beta-1-induced transcript 1 [Tgfbr1i1]), extracellular matrix and cell adhesion (including collagen and integrin genes), and immune function (including lymphocyte antigen 6 (Ly6) subunits, IL-17b, Toll-interacting protein, and Ficolin B). Genes validated by quantitative RT-PCR and protein analysis included collagen III alpha 1 Col3a1, Ly6b, glucocorticoid receptor and Importin-13 (specific to the BN rat lung), and Serpina1 and Ficolin B (specific to the Fisher lung). Innate differences in patterns of gene expression in developing lung that contribute to individual variation in respiratory phenotype are likely to contribute to the pathogenesis of asthma.

Crosstalk in inflammation: the interplay of glucocorticoid receptor-based mechanisms and kinases and phosphatases

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are steroidal ligands for the GC receptor (GR), which can function as a ligand-activated transcription factor. These steroidal ligands and derivatives thereof are the first line of treatment in a vast array of inflammatory diseases. However, due to the general surge of side effects associated with long-term use of GCs and the potential problem of GC resistance in some patients, the scientific world continues to search for a better understanding of the GC-mediated antiinflammatory mechanisms. The reversible phosphomodification of various mediators in the inflammatory process plays a key role in modulating and fine-tuning the sensitivity, longevity, and intensity of the inflammatory response. As such, the antiinflammatory GCs can modulate the activity and/or expression of various kinases and phosphatases, thus affecting the signaling efficacy toward the propagation of proinflammatory gene expression and proinflammatory gene mRNA stability. Conversely, phosphorylation of GR can affect GR ligand- and DNA-binding affinity, mobility, and cofactor recruitment, culminating in altered transactivation and transrepression capabilities of GR, and consequently leading to a modified antiinflammatory potential. Recently, new roles for kinases and phosphatases have been described in GR-based antiinflammatory mechanisms. Moreover, kinase inhibitors have become increasingly important as antiinflammatory tools, not only for research but also for therapeutic purposes. In light of these developments, we aim to illuminate the integrated interplay between GR signaling and its correlating kinases and phosphatases in the context of the clinically important combat of inflammation, giving attention to implications on GC-mediated side effects and therapy resistance.

Steroidal androgens and nonsteroidal, tissue-selective androgen receptor modulator, S-22, regulate androgen receptor function through distinct genomic and nongenomic signaling pathways

Androgen receptor (AR) ligands are important for the development and function of several tissues and organs. However, the poor oral bioavailability, pharmacokinetic properties, and receptor cross-reactivity of testosterone, coupled with side effects, place limits on its clinical use. Selective AR modulators (SARMs) elicit anabolic effects in muscle and bone, sparing reproductive organs like the prostate. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the tissue selectivity remain ambiguous. We performed a variety of in vitro studies to compare and define the molecular mechanisms of an aryl propionamide SARM, S-22, as compared with dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Studies indicated that S-22 increased levator ani muscle weight but decreased the size of prostate in rats. Analysis of the upstream intracellular signaling events indicated that S-22 and DHT mediated their actions through distinct pathways. Modulation of these pathways altered the recruitment of AR and its cofactors to the PSA enhancer in a ligand-dependent fashion. In addition, S-22 induced Xenopus laevis oocyte maturation and rapid phosphorylation of several kinases, through pathways distinct from steroids. These studies reveal novel differences in the molecular mechanisms by which S-22, a nonsteroidal SARM, and DHT mediate their pharmacological effects.

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase/MAP kinase phosphatase regulation: roles in cell growth, death, and cancer

Mitogen-activated protein kinase dual-specificity phosphatase-1 (also called MKP-1, DUSP1, ERP, CL100, HVH1, PTPN10, and 3CH134) is a member of the threonine-tyrosine dual-specificity phosphatases, one of more than 100 protein tyrosine phosphatases. It was first identified approximately 20 years ago, and since that time extensive investigations into both mkp-1 mRNA and protein regulation and function in different cells, tissues, and organs have been conducted. However, no general review on the topic of MKP-1 exists. As the subject matter pertaining to MKP-1 encompasses many branches of the biomedical field, we focus on the role of this protein in cancer development and progression, highlighting the potential role of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family. Section II of this article elucidates the MAPK family cross-talk. Section III reviews the structure of the mkp-1 encoding gene, and the known mechanisms regulating the expression and activity of the protein. Section IV is an overview of the MAPK-specific dual-specificity phosphatases and their role in cancer. In sections V and VI, mkp-1 mRNA and protein are examined in relation to cancer biology, therapeutics, and clinical studies, including a discussion of the potential role of the MAPK family. We conclude by proposing an integrated scheme for MKP-1 and MAPK in cancer.

Mechanisms involved in tissue-specific apopotosis regulated by glucocorticoids

Physiological cell turnover is under the control of a sharp and dynamic balance of different homeostatic mechanisms such as the equilibrium between cell proliferation and cell death. These mechanisms play an important role in maintaining normal tissue function and architecture. It is well known that apoptosis is the prevalent mode of physiological cell loss in most tissues. Steroid hormones like glucocorticoids have been identified as key signals controlling cell turnover by modulating programmed cell death in a tissue- and cell-specific manner. In this sense, several reports have demonstrated that glucocorticoids are able to induce apoptosis in cells of the hematopoietic system such as monocytes, macrophages, and T lymphocytes. In contrast, they protect against apoptotic signals evoked by cytokines, cAMP, tumor suppressors, in glandular cells such as the mammary gland epithelia, endometrium, hepatocytes, ovarian follicular cells, and fibroblasts. Although several studies have provided significant information on hormone-dependent apoptosis in an specific tissue, a clearly defined pathway that mediates cell death in response to glucocorticoids in different cell types is still misunderstood. The scope of this review is held to those mechanisms by which glucocorticoids control apoptosis, emphasizing tissue-specific expression of genes that are involved in the apoptotic pathway.

Androgen receptor (AR) coregulators: a diversity of functions converging on and regulating the AR transcriptional complex

Androgens, acting through the androgen receptor (AR), are responsible for the development of the male phenotype during embryogenesis, the achievement of sexual maturation at puberty, and the maintenance of male reproductive function and behavior in adulthood. In addition, androgens affect a wide variety of nonreproductive tissues. Moreover, aberrant androgen action plays a critical role in multiple pathologies, including prostate cancer and androgen insensitivity syndromes. The formation of a productive AR transcriptional complex requires the functional and structural interaction of the AR with its coregulators. In the last decade, an overwhelming and ever increasing number of proteins have been proposed to possess AR coactivating or corepressing characteristics. Intriguingly, a vast diversity of functions has been ascribed to these proteins, indicating that a multitude of cellular functions and signals converge on the AR to regulate its function. The current review aims to provide an overview of the AR coregulator proteins identified to date and to propose a classification of these AR coregulator proteins according to the function(s) ascribed to them. Taken together, this approach will increase our understanding of the cellular pathways that converge on the AR to ensure an appropriate transcriptional response to androgens.

Transforming growth factor-beta1 effects on endothelial monolayer permeability involve focal adhesion kinase/Src

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1 activity has been shown to increase vascular endothelial barrier permeability, which is believed to precede several pathologic conditions, including pulmonary edema and vessel inflammation. In endothelial monolayers, TGF-beta1 increases permeability, and a number of studies have demonstrated the alteration of cell-cell contacts by TGF-beta1. We hypothesized that focal adhesion complexes also likely contribute to alterations in endothelial permeability. We examined early signal transduction events associated with rapid changes in monolayer permeability and the focal adhesion complex of bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Western blotting revealed rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and Src kinase in response to TGF-beta1; inhibition of both of these kinases using pp2 (4-amino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine), ameliorates TGF-beta1-induced monolayer permeability. Activation of FAK/Src requires activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor downstream of the TGF-beta receptors, and is blocked by the epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitor AG1478. Immunohistochemistry showed that actin and the focal adhesion proteins paxillin, vinculin, and hydrogen peroxide-inducible clone-5 (Hic-5) are rearranged in response to TGF-beta1; these proteins are released from focal adhesion complexes. Rearrangement of paxillin and vinculin by TGF-beta1 is not blocked by the FAK/Src inhibitor, pp2, or by SB431542 inhibition of the TGF-beta type I receptor, anaplastic lymphoma kinase 5; however, pp1 (4-Amino-5-(4-methylphenyl)-7-(t-butyl)pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine), which inhibits both type I and type II TGF-beta receptors, does block paxillin and vinculin rearrangement. Hic-5 protein rearrangement requires FAK/Src activity. Together, these results suggest that TGF-beta1-induced monolayer permeability involves focal adhesion and cytoskeletal rearrangement through both FAK/Src-dependent and -independent pathways.

Differential roles of HIC-5 isoforms in the regulation of cell death and myotube formation during myogenesis

Hic-5 is a LIM-Only member of the paxillin superfamily of focal adhesion proteins. It has been shown to regulate a range of biological processes including: senescence, tumorigenesis, steroid hormone action, integrin signaling, differentiation, and apoptosis. To better understand the roles of Hic-5 during development, we initiated a detailed analysis of Hic-5 expression and function in C(2)C(12) myoblasts, a well-established model for myogenesis. We have found that: (1) myoblasts express at least 6 distinct Hic-5 isoforms; (2) the two predominant isoforms, Hic-5alpha and Hic-5beta, are differentially expressed during myogenesis; (3) any experimentally induced change in Hic-5 expression results in a substantial increase in apoptosis during differentiation; (4) ectopic expression of Hic-5alpha is permissive to differentiation while expression of either Hic-5beta or antisense Hic-5 blocks myoblast fusion but not chemodifferentiation; (5) Hic-5 localizes to focal adhesions in C(2)C(12) myoblasts and perturbation of Hic-5 leads to defects in cell spreading; (6) alterations in Hic-5 expression interfere with the normal dynamics of laminin expression; and (7) ectopic laminin, but not fibronectin, can rescue the Hic-5-induced blockade of myoblast survival and differentiation. Our data demonstrate differential roles for individual Hic-5 isoforms during myogenesis and support the hypothesis that Hic-5 mediates these effects via integrin signaling.

In vivo functions of mitogen-activated protein kinases: conclusions from knock-in and knock-out mice

Multicellular organisms achieve intercellular communication by means of signalling molecules whose effect on the target cell is mediated by signal transduction pathways. Such pathways relay, amplify and integrate signals to elicit appropriate biological responses. Protein kinases form crucial intermediate components of numerous signalling pathways. One group of protein kinases, the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) are kinases involved in signalling pathways that respond primarily to mitogens and stress stimuli. In vitro studies revealed that the MAP kinases are implicated in several cellular processes, including cell division, differentiation, cell survival/apoptosis, gene expression, motility and metabolism. As such, dysfunction of specific MAP kinases is associated with diseases such as cancer and immunological disorders. However, the genuine in vivo functions of many MAP kinases remain elusive. Genetically modified mouse models deficient in a specific MAP kinase or expressing a constitutive active or a dominant negative variant of a particular MAP kinase offer valuable tools for elucidating the biological role of these protein kinases. In this review, we focus on the current status of MAP kinase knock-in and knock-out mouse models and their phenotypes. Moreover, examples of the application of MAP kinase transgenic mice for validating therapeutic properties of specific MAP kinase inhibitors, and for investigating the role of MAP kinase in pathogen-host interactions will be discussed.

Atypical mitogen-activated protein kinases: structure, regulation and functions

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are a family of serine/threonine kinases that play a central role in transducing extracellular cues into a variety of intracellular responses ranging from lineage specification to cell division and adaptation. Fourteen MAP kinase genes have been identified in the human genome, which define 7 distinct MAP kinase signaling pathways. MAP kinases can be classified into conventional or atypical enzymes, based on their ability to get phosphorylated and activated by members of the MAP kinase kinase (MAPKK)/MEK family. Conventional MAP kinases comprise ERK1/ERK2, p38s, JNKs, and ERK5, which are all substrates of MAPKKs. Atypical MAP kinases include ERK3/ERK4, NLK and ERK7. Much less is known about the regulation, substrate specificity and physiological functions of atypical MAP kinases.

From the membrane to the nucleus and back again: bifunctional focal adhesion proteins

Cell substratum adhesion influences a variety of processes including motility, proliferation and survival. In recent years, it has become clear that there are proteins that are capable of shuttling between cell adhesion zones and the nucleus, providing a mechanism for transcellular coordination and communication. Recent findings have given insight into the physiological signals that trigger trafficking of focal adhesion constituents to the nucleus, where they make diverse contributions to the control of gene expression.