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Targa Dias Anastacio H, Matosin N, Ooi L. Familial Alzheimer's Disease Neurons Bearing Mutations in PSEN1 Display Increased Calcium Responses to AMPA as an Early Calcium Dysregulation Phenotype. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:625. [PMID: 38792645 PMCID: PMC11123496 DOI: 10.3390/life14050625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD) can be caused by mutations in PSEN1 that encode presenilin-1, a component of the gamma-secretase complex that cleaves amyloid precursor protein. Alterations in calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis and glutamate signaling are implicated in the pathogenesis of FAD; however, it has been difficult to assess in humans whether or not these phenotypes are the result of amyloid or tau pathology. This study aimed to assess the early calcium and glutamate phenotypes of FAD by measuring the Ca2+ response of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neurons bearing PSEN1 mutations to glutamate and the ionotropic glutamate receptor agonists NMDA, AMPA, and kainate compared to isogenic control and healthy lines. The data show that in early neurons, even in the absence of amyloid and tau phenotypes, FAD neurons exhibit increased Ca2+ responses to glutamate and AMPA, but not NMDA or kainate. Together, this suggests that PSEN1 mutations alter Ca2+ and glutamate signaling as an early phenotype of FAD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Targa Dias Anastacio
- Molecular Horizons and School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
| | - Natalie Matosin
- School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2050, Australia;
| | - Lezanne Ooi
- Molecular Horizons and School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia;
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2
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Safieh M, Liraz O, Ovadia M, Michaelson D. The Role of Impaired Receptor Trafficking in Mediating the Pathological Effects of APOE4 in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2024; 97:753-775. [PMID: 38217595 PMCID: PMC10894586 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) is the most prevalent genetic risk factor of Alzheimer's disease. Several studies suggest that APOE4 binding to its receptors is associated with their internalization and accumulation in intracellular compartments. Importantly, this phenomenon also occurs with other, non-ApoE receptors. Based on these observations, we hypothesized that APOE4 pathological effects are mediated by impairment in the life cycle of distinct receptors (APOER2, LRP1, IR, VEGFR). OBJECTIVE To examine the effects of APOE genotype on receptors protein levels and compartmentalization. METHODS Primary mouse neurons were prepared from APOE3 or APOE4 targeted replacement mice, or APOE-KO mice. Specific receptors protein levels were evaluated in these neurons, utilizing immunofluorescent staining. Additionally, surface membrane protein levels of those receptors were assessed by cell surface biotinylation assay and ELISA. Receptors' colocalization with intracellular compartments was assessed by double staining and confocal microscopy, followed by colocalization analysis. Finally, LRP1 or APOER2 were knocked-down with CRISPR/Cas9 system to examine their role in mediating APOE4 effects on the receptors. RESULTS Our results revealed lower receptors' levels in APOE4, specifically on the membrane surface. Additionally, APOE4 affects the compartmentation of these receptors in two patterns: the first was observed with LRP1 and was associated with decreased receptor levels in numerous intracellular compartments. The second was obtained with the other receptors and was associated with their accumulation in early endosomes and their decrease in the late endosomes. CONCLUSIONS These results provide a unifying mechanism, in which APOE4 drives the down regulation of various receptors, which plays important roles in distinct APOE4 related pathological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirna Safieh
- Department of Neurobiology, Sagol School of Neurosciences, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Ori Liraz
- Department of Neurobiology, Sagol School of Neurosciences, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Maayan Ovadia
- Department of Neurobiology, Sagol School of Neurosciences, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Danny Michaelson
- Department of Neurobiology, Sagol School of Neurosciences, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel
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Noori M, Mahboobi R, Nabavi-Rad A, Jamshidizadeh S, Fakharian F, Yadegar A, Zali MR. Helicobacter pylori infection contributes to the expression of Alzheimer's disease-associated risk factors and neuroinflammation. Heliyon 2023; 9:e19607. [PMID: 37810022 PMCID: PMC10558876 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Over time, mounting evidence has demonstrated extra-gastric manifestations of Helicobacter pylori infection. As such, a number of studies demonstrated the potential contribution of H. pylori infection to the incidence and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Considering unanswered questions regarding the effect of H. pylori infection on brain activity, we sought to investigate the impact of H. pylori infection on the expression of AD-associated risk factors. We used two H. pylori clinical strains obtained from two patients with peptic ulcer and evaluated their influence on the expression level of AD-associated genes (APP, ApoE2, ApoE4, ABCA7, BIN1, Clu, CD33) and genes for inflammatory markers (TLR-4, IL-8, TNF-α) by RT-qPCR in human glioblastoma (U87MG) and astrocyte (1321N1) cell lines. The expression of inflammatory cytokines was further assessed by ELISA assay. The exposure of U97MG and 1321N1 cells to H. pylori strains resulted in a significant enhancement in the expression level of the risk allele ApoE4, while reducing the expression of the protective allele ApoE2. H. pylori infection remarkably increased the expression level of main AD-associated risk genes, and also pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, we noticed a substantial elevation in the mRNA expression level of transmembrane receptor TLR-4 following H. pylori infection. Our findings presented the potential for H. pylori to stimulate the expression of AD-associated risk genes and trigger neuroinflammation in the brain tissue. This, in principle, leads to the recommendation that AD patients should perhaps test for H. pylori infection and receive treatments upon positive detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Noori
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramina Mahboobi
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Nabavi-Rad
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shaghayegh Jamshidizadeh
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Fakharian
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abbas Yadegar
- Foodborne and Waterborne Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Zali
- Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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4
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Askenazi M, Kavanagh T, Pires G, Ueberheide B, Wisniewski T, Drummond E. Compilation of reported protein changes in the brain in Alzheimer's disease. Nat Commun 2023; 14:4466. [PMID: 37491476 PMCID: PMC10368642 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-40208-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteomic studies of human Alzheimer's disease brain tissue have potential to identify protein changes that drive disease, and to identify new drug targets. Here, we analyse 38 published Alzheimer's disease proteomic studies, generating a map of protein changes in human brain tissue across thirteen brain regions, three disease stages (preclinical Alzheimer's disease, mild cognitive impairment, advanced Alzheimer's disease), and proteins enriched in amyloid plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and cerebral amyloid angiopathy. Our dataset is compiled into a searchable database (NeuroPro). We found 848 proteins were consistently altered in 5 or more studies. Comparison of protein changes in early-stage and advanced Alzheimer's disease revealed proteins associated with synapse, vesicle, and lysosomal pathways show change early in disease, but widespread changes in mitochondrial associated protein expression change are only seen in advanced Alzheimer's disease. Protein changes were similar for brain regions considered vulnerable and regions considered resistant. This resource provides insight into Alzheimer's disease brain protein changes and highlights proteins of interest for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tomas Kavanagh
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2050, Australia
| | - Geoffrey Pires
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Beatrix Ueberheide
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Proteomics Laboratory, Division of Advanced Research Technologies, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Eleanor Drummond
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, 2050, Australia.
- Center for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, Grossman School of Medicine, New York University, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
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Griffiths J, Grant SGN. Synapse pathology in Alzheimer's disease. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 139:13-23. [PMID: 35690535 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Synapse loss and damage are central features of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and contribute to the onset and progression of its behavioural and physiological features. Here we review the literature describing synapse pathology in AD, from what we have learned from microscopy in terms of its impacts on synapse architecture, to the mechanistic role of Aβ, tau and glial cells, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the link with AD risk genes. We consider the emerging view that synapse pathology may operate at a further level, that of synapse diversity, and discuss the prospects for leveraging new synaptome mapping methods to comprehensively understand the molecular properties of vulnerable and resilient synapses. Uncovering AD impacts on brain synapse diversity should inform therapeutic approaches targeted at preserving or replenishing lost and damaged synapses and aid the interpretation of clinical imaging approaches that aim to measure synapse damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Griffiths
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Dementia Research Institute at Imperial College, Department of Brain Sciences, Imperial College London, London W12 0NN, UK
| | - Seth G N Grant
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.
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Fu WY, Ip NY. The role of genetic risk factors of Alzheimer's disease in synaptic dysfunction. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 139:3-12. [PMID: 35918217 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive deterioration of cognitive functions. Due to the extended global life expectancy, the prevalence of AD is increasing among aging populations worldwide. While AD is a multifactorial disease, synaptic dysfunction is one of the major neuropathological changes that occur early in AD, before clinical symptoms appear, and is associated with the progression of cognitive deterioration. However, the underlying pathological mechanisms leading to this synaptic dysfunction remains unclear. Recent large-scale genomic analyses have identified more than 40 genetic risk factors that are associated with AD. In this review, we discuss the functional roles of these genes in synaptogenesis and synaptic functions under physiological conditions, and how their functions are dysregulated in AD. This will provide insights into the contributions of these encoded proteins to synaptic dysfunction during AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Yu Fu
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518057, China.
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Raulin AC, Doss SV, Trottier ZA, Ikezu TC, Bu G, Liu CC. ApoE in Alzheimer’s disease: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies. Mol Neurodegener 2022; 17:72. [PMID: 36348357 PMCID: PMC9644639 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-022-00574-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia worldwide, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing due to extended lifespans. Among the increasing number of genetic risk factors identified, the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene remains the strongest and most prevalent, impacting more than half of all AD cases. While the ε4 allele of the APOE gene significantly increases AD risk, the ε2 allele is protective relative to the common ε3 allele. These gene alleles encode three apoE protein isoforms that differ at two amino acid positions. The primary physiological function of apoE is to mediate lipid transport in the brain and periphery; however, additional functions of apoE in diverse biological functions have been recognized. Pathogenically, apoE seeds amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques in the brain with apoE4 driving earlier and more abundant amyloids. ApoE isoforms also have differential effects on multiple Aβ-related or Aβ-independent pathways. The complexity of apoE biology and pathobiology presents challenges to designing effective apoE-targeted therapeutic strategies. This review examines the key pathobiological pathways of apoE and related targeting strategies with a specific focus on the latest technological advances and tools.
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8
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Drummond E, Kavanagh T, Pires G, Marta-Ariza M, Kanshin E, Nayak S, Faustin A, Berdah V, Ueberheide B, Wisniewski T. The amyloid plaque proteome in early onset Alzheimer's disease and Down syndrome. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2022; 10:53. [PMID: 35418158 PMCID: PMC9008934 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-022-01356-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloid plaques contain many proteins in addition to beta amyloid (Aβ). Previous studies examining plaque-associated proteins have shown these additional proteins are important; they provide insight into the factors that drive amyloid plaque development and are potential biomarkers or therapeutic targets for Alzheimer's disease (AD). The aim of this study was to comprehensively identify proteins that are enriched in amyloid plaques using unbiased proteomics in two subtypes of early onset AD: sporadic early onset AD (EOAD) and Down Syndrome (DS) with AD. We focused our study on early onset AD as the drivers of the more aggressive pathology development in these cases is unknown and it is unclear whether amyloid-plaque enriched proteins differ between subtypes of early onset AD. Amyloid plaques and neighbouring non-plaque tissue were microdissected from human brain sections using laser capture microdissection and label-free LC-MS was used to quantify the proteins present. 48 proteins were consistently enriched in amyloid plaques in EOAD and DS. Many of these proteins were more significantly enriched in amyloid plaques than Aβ. The most enriched proteins in amyloid plaques in both EOAD and DS were: COL25A1, SMOC1, MDK, NTN1, OLFML3 and HTRA1. Endosomal/lysosomal proteins were particularly highly enriched in amyloid plaques. Fluorescent immunohistochemistry was used to validate the enrichment of four proteins in amyloid plaques (moesin, ezrin, ARL8B and SMOC1) and to compare the amount of total Aβ, Aβ40, Aβ42, phosphorylated Aβ, pyroglutamate Aβ species and oligomeric species in EOAD and DS. These studies showed that phosphorylated Aβ, pyroglutamate Aβ species and SMOC1 were significantly higher in DS plaques, while oligomers were significantly higher in EOAD. Overall, we observed that amyloid plaques in EOAD and DS largely contained the same proteins, however the amount of enrichment of some proteins was different in EOAD and DS. Our study highlights the significant enrichment of many proteins in amyloid plaques, many of which may be potential therapeutic targets and/or biomarkers for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Drummond
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
| | - Tomas Kavanagh
- Brain and Mind Centre and School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Geoffrey Pires
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Mitchell Marta-Ariza
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Evgeny Kanshin
- Proteomics Laboratory, Division of Advanced Research Technologies, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shruti Nayak
- Merck & Co., Inc, Computational & Structural Chemistry, Kenilworth, NJ, USA
| | - Arline Faustin
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Valentin Berdah
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Beatrix Ueberheide
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA
- Proteomics Laboratory, Division of Advanced Research Technologies, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Centre for Cognitive Neurology, Department of Neurology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, Science Building, Rm 1017, 435 East 30th Street, New York, NY, 10016, USA.
- Departments of Pathology and Psychiatry, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA.
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DeChellis-Marks MR, Wei Y, Ding Y, Wolfe CM, Krivinko JM, MacDonald ML, Lopez OL, Sweet RA, Kofler J. Psychosis in Alzheimer's Disease Is Associated With Increased Excitatory Neuron Vulnerability and Post-transcriptional Mechanisms Altering Synaptic Protein Levels. Front Neurol 2022; 13:778419. [PMID: 35309563 PMCID: PMC8925864 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.778419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease with psychosis (AD+P) is a heritable phenotypic variant of the disease which is associated with more rapid cognitive deterioration compared to Alzheimer's disease without psychosis (AD–P). Cognitive decline in AD correlates with synapse loss, and our previous studies suggest that those with AD+P have a differentially affected synaptic proteome relative to those with AD–P. In this study, we utilized RNA-sequencing of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in a cohort of 80 AD cases to evaluate novel transcriptomic signatures that may confer risk of psychosis in AD. We found that AD+P was associated with a 9% reduction in excitatory neuron proportion compared to AD–P [Mean (SD) AD+P 0.295 (0.061); AD–P 0.324 (0.052), p = 0.026]. mRNA levels contributed only modestly to altered synaptic proteins in AD+P relative to AD–P. Instead, network analysis identified altered expression of gene modules from protein ubiquitination, unfolded protein response, eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (EIF2) signaling and endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways in AD+P. We previously found that neuropathologies account for ~18% of the variance in the occurrence of psychosis in AD. Further inclusion of cell type proportions and differentially expressed modules increased the percent of the variance in psychosis occurrence accounted for in our AD cohort to 67.5%.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yue Wei
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Ying Ding
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Cody M. Wolfe
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Joshua M. Krivinko
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Matthew L. MacDonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Oscar L. Lopez
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Robert A. Sweet
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- *Correspondence: Robert A. Sweet
| | - Julia Kofler
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Di Lazzaro V, Bella R, Benussi A, Bologna M, Borroni B, Capone F, Chen KHS, Chen R, Chistyakov AV, Classen J, Kiernan MC, Koch G, Lanza G, Lefaucheur JP, Matsumoto H, Nguyen JP, Orth M, Pascual-Leone A, Rektorova I, Simko P, Taylor JP, Tremblay S, Ugawa Y, Dubbioso R, Ranieri F. Diagnostic contribution and therapeutic perspectives of transcranial magnetic stimulation in dementia. Clin Neurophysiol 2021; 132:2568-2607. [PMID: 34482205 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2021.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a powerful tool to probe in vivo brain circuits, as it allows to assess several cortical properties such asexcitability, plasticity and connectivity in humans. In the last 20 years, TMS has been applied to patients with dementia, enabling the identification of potential markers of thepathophysiology and predictors of cognitive decline; moreover, applied repetitively, TMS holds promise as a potential therapeutic intervention. The objective of this paper is to present a comprehensive review of studies that have employed TMS in dementia and to discuss potential clinical applications, from the diagnosis to the treatment. To provide a technical and theoretical framework, we first present an overview of the basic physiological mechanisms of the application of TMS to assess cortical excitability, excitation and inhibition balance, mechanisms of plasticity and cortico-cortical connectivity in the human brain. We then review the insights gained by TMS techniques into the pathophysiology and predictors of progression and response to treatment in dementias, including Alzheimer's disease (AD)-related dementias and secondary dementias. We show that while a single TMS measure offers low specificity, the use of a panel of measures and/or neurophysiological index can support the clinical diagnosis and predict progression. In the last part of the article, we discuss the therapeutic uses of TMS. So far, only repetitive TMS (rTMS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and multisite rTMS associated with cognitive training have been shown to be, respectively, possibly (Level C of evidence) and probably (Level B of evidence) effective to improve cognition, apathy, memory, and language in AD patients, especially at a mild/early stage of the disease. The clinical use of this type of treatment warrants the combination of brain imaging techniques and/or electrophysiological tools to elucidate neurobiological effects of neurostimulation and to optimally tailor rTMS treatment protocols in individual patients or specific patient subgroups with dementia or mild cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Di Lazzaro
- Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy.
| | - Rita Bella
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies, Section of Neurosciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Alberto Benussi
- Centre for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Matteo Bologna
- Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy; IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | - Barbara Borroni
- Centre for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Fioravante Capone
- Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Kai-Hsiang S Chen
- Department of Neurology, National Taiwan University Hospital Hsin-Chu Branch, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan
| | - Robert Chen
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Division of Brain, Imaging& Behaviour, Krembil Brain Institute, Toronto, Canada
| | | | - Joseph Classen
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Leipzig, Leipzig University Medical Center, Germany
| | - Matthew C Kiernan
- Department of Neurology, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Giacomo Koch
- Non Invasive Brain Stimulation Unit/Department of Behavioral and Clinical Neurology, Santa Lucia Foundation IRCCS, Rome, Italy; Department of Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lanza
- Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Department of Neurology IC, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
| | - Jean-Pascal Lefaucheur
- ENT Team, EA4391, Faculty of Medicine, Paris Est Créteil University, Créteil, France; Clinical Neurophysiology Unit, Department of Physiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France
| | | | - Jean-Paul Nguyen
- Pain Center, clinique Bretéché, groupe ELSAN, Multidisciplinary Pain, Palliative and Supportive care Center, UIC 22/CAT2 and Laboratoire de Thérapeutique (EA3826), University Hospital, Nantes, France
| | - Michael Orth
- University Hospital of Old Age Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Swiss Huntington's Disease Centre, Siloah, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Hinda and Arthur Marcus Institute for Aging Research, Center for Memory Health, Hebrew SeniorLife, USA; Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Guttmann Brain Health Institute, Universitat Autonoma Barcelona, Spain
| | - Irena Rektorova
- Applied Neuroscience Research Group, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University (CEITEC MU), Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Neurology, St. Anne's University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Patrik Simko
- Applied Neuroscience Research Group, Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University (CEITEC MU), Brno, Czech Republic; Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - John-Paul Taylor
- Translational and Clinical Research Institute, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Sara Tremblay
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ottawa, ON, Canada; Royal Ottawa Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Yoshikazu Ugawa
- Department of Human Neurophysiology, School of Medicine, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
| | - Raffaele Dubbioso
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Federico Ranieri
- Unit of Neurology, Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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11
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DeMichele-Sweet MAA, Klei L, Creese B, Harwood JC, Weamer EA, McClain L, Sims R, Hernandez I, Moreno-Grau S, Tárraga L, Boada M, Alarcón-Martín E, Valero S, Liu Y, Hooli B, Aarsland D, Selbaek G, Bergh S, Rongve A, Saltvedt I, Skjellegrind HK, Engdahl B, Stordal E, Andreassen OA, Djurovic S, Athanasiu L, Seripa D, Borroni B, Albani D, Forloni G, Mecocci P, Serretti A, De Ronchi D, Politis A, Williams J, Mayeux R, Foroud T, Ruiz A, Ballard C, Holmans P, Lopez OL, Kamboh MI, Devlin B, Sweet RA. Genome-wide association identifies the first risk loci for psychosis in Alzheimer disease. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:5797-5811. [PMID: 34112972 PMCID: PMC8660923 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01152-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychotic symptoms, defined as the occurrence of delusions or hallucinations, are frequent in Alzheimer disease (AD with psychosis, AD + P). AD + P affects ~50% of individuals with AD, identifies a subgroup with poor outcomes, and is associated with a greater degree of cognitive impairment and depressive symptoms, compared to subjects without psychosis (AD - P). Although the estimated heritability of AD + P is 61%, genetic sources of risk are unknown. We report a genome-wide meta-analysis of 12,317 AD subjects, 5445 AD + P. Results showed common genetic variation accounted for a significant portion of heritability. Two loci, one in ENPP6 (rs9994623, O.R. (95%CI) 1.16 (1.10, 1.22), p = 1.26 × 10-8) and one spanning the 3'-UTR of an alternatively spliced transcript of SUMF1 (rs201109606, O.R. 0.65 (0.56-0.76), p = 3.24 × 10-8), had genome-wide significant associations with AD + P. Gene-based analysis identified a significant association with APOE, due to the APOE risk haplotype ε4. AD + P demonstrated negative genetic correlations with cognitive and educational attainment and positive genetic correlation with depressive symptoms. We previously observed a negative genetic correlation with schizophrenia; instead, we now found a stronger negative correlation with the related phenotype of bipolar disorder. Analysis of polygenic risk scores supported this genetic correlation and documented a positive genetic correlation with risk variation for AD, beyond the effect of ε4. We also document a small set of SNPs likely to affect risk for AD + P and AD or schizophrenia. These findings provide the first unbiased identification of the association of psychosis in AD with common genetic variation and provide insights into its genetic architecture.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lambertus Klei
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Byron Creese
- University of Exeter Medical School, College of Medicine and Health, Exeter, UK
- Norwegian, Exeter and King's College Consortium for Genetics of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Dementia, Exeter, UK
| | - Janet C Harwood
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Elise A Weamer
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Lora McClain
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Rebecca Sims
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Isabel Hernandez
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sonia Moreno-Grau
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lluís Tárraga
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercè Boada
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Emilio Alarcón-Martín
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergi Valero
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yushi Liu
- Global Statistical Science, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Basavaraj Hooli
- Neurodegeneration Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Dag Aarsland
- Department of Old Age Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London and Centre for Age-Related Medicine, Stavanger University Hospital, Stavanger, Norway
| | - Geir Selbaek
- Norwegian National Advisory Unit in Ageing and Health, Vestfold Hospital Trust, Tønsberg, Norway
- Department Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sverre Bergh
- Research Centre of Age-related Functional Decline and Disease, Innlandet Hospital Trust, Pb 68, Ottestad, Norway
| | - Arvid Rongve
- Department of Research and Innovation, Helse Fonna, Haugesund and Department of Clinical Medicine (K1), University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Ingvild Saltvedt
- Geriatric Department, St. Olav Hospital, University Hospital of Trondheim, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Håvard K Skjellegrind
- HUNT Research Centre, Department of Public Health and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Levanger, Norway
- Levanger Hospital, Nord-Trøndelag Hospital Trust, Levanger, Norway
| | - Bo Engdahl
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eystein Stordal
- Department of Mental Health, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- NORMENT Centre, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, and Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Srdjan Djurovic
- Department of Medical Genetics, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- NORMENT, Department of Clinical Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Lavinia Athanasiu
- NORMENT, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Davide Seripa
- Department of Hematology and Stem Cell Transplant, Vito Fazzi Hospital, Lecce, Italy
| | - Barbara Borroni
- Centre for Neurodegenerative Disorders, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
| | - Diego Albani
- Neuroscience Department, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Forloni
- Neuroscience Department, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Mecocci
- Institute of Gerontology and Geriatrics, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy
| | - Alessandro Serretti
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Diana De Ronchi
- Department of Biomedical and NeuroMotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonis Politis
- 1st Department of Psychiatry, Eginition Hospital, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Julie Williams
- Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- UK Dementia Research Institute @ Cardiff, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Richard Mayeux
- Departments of Neurology, Psychiatry and Epidemiology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tatiana Foroud
- Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Agustin Ruiz
- Research Center and Memory Clinic Fundació ACE, Institut Català de Neurociències Aplicades, Universitat Internacional de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
- CIBERNED, Network Center for Biomedical Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Peter Holmans
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Oscar L Lopez
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - M Ilyas Kamboh
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bernie Devlin
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Robert A Sweet
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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12
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Zhang H, Chiu PW, Ip I, Liu T, Wong GHY, Song YQ, Wong SWH, Herrup K, Mak HKF. Asymmetric left-right hippocampal glutamatergic modulation of cognitive control in ApoE-isoform subjects is unrelated to neuroinflammation. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:5310-5326. [PMID: 34309092 PMCID: PMC9290961 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The glutamatergic cycle is essential in modulating memory processing by the hippocampal circuitry. Our combined proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H‐MRS) and task‐based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study (using face‐name paired‐associates encoding and retrieval task) of a cognitively normal cohort of 67 healthy adults (18 ApoE4 carriers and 49 non‐ApoE4 carriers) found altered patterns of relationships between glutamatergic‐modulated synaptic signalling and neuronal activity or functional hyperaemia in the ApoE4 isoforms. Our study highlighted the asymmetric left–right hippocampal glutamatergic system in modulating neuronal activities in ApoE4 carriers versus non‐carriers. Such brain differentiation might be developmental cognitive advantages or compensatory due to impaired synaptic integrity and plasticity in ApoE4 carriers. As there was no difference in myoinositol levels measured by MRS between the ApoE4 and non‐ApoE4 subgroups, the mechanism is unlikely to be a response to neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhang
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Alzheimer's Disease Research Network, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Pui Wai Chiu
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Isaac Ip
- Department of Educational Psychology, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Tianyin Liu
- Department of Social Work and Administration, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Gloria Hoi Yan Wong
- Department of Social Work and Administration, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - You-Qiang Song
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Savio Wai Ho Wong
- Department of Educational Psychology, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Karl Herrup
- Alzheimer Disease Research Centre, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Henry Ka Fung Mak
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,Alzheimer's Disease Research Network, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.,State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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13
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Squillario M, Abate G, Tomasi F, Tozzo V, Barla A, Uberti D. A telescope GWAS analysis strategy, based on SNPs-genes-pathways ensamble and on multivariate algorithms, to characterize late onset Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12063. [PMID: 32694537 PMCID: PMC7374579 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-67699-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Genome–wide association studies (GWAS) have revealed a plethora of putative susceptibility genes for Alzheimer’s disease (AD), with the sole exception of APOE gene unequivocally validated in independent study. Considering that the etiology of complex diseases like AD could depend on functional multiple genes interaction network, here we proposed an alternative GWAS analysis strategy based on (i) multivariate methods and on a (ii) telescope approach, in order to guarantee the identification of correlated variables, and reveal their connections at three biological connected levels. Specifically as multivariate methods, we employed two machine learning algorithms and a genetic association test and we considered SNPs, Genes and Pathways features in the analysis of two public GWAS dataset (ADNI-1 and ADNI-2). For each dataset and for each feature we addressed two binary classifications tasks: cases vs. controls and the low vs. high risk of developing AD considering the allelic status of APOEe4. This complex strategy allowed the identification of SNPs, genes and pathways lists statistically robust and meaningful from the biological viewpoint. Among the results, we confirm the involvement of TOMM40 gene in AD and we propose GRM7 as a novel gene significantly associated with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giulia Abate
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Daniela Uberti
- Department of Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Brescia, 25123, Brescia, Italy
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14
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Roda AR, Montoliu-Gaya L, Villegas S. The Role of Apolipoprotein E Isoforms in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 68:459-471. [PMID: 30775980 DOI: 10.3233/jad-180740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia worldwide, is characterized by high levels of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide and hyperphosphorylated tau protein. Genetically, the ɛ4 allele of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) has been established as the major risk factor for developing late-onset AD (LOAD), the most common form of the disease. Although the role ApoE plays in AD is still not completely understood, a differential role of its isoforms has long been known. The current review compiles the involvement of ApoE isoforms in amyloid-β protein precursor transcription, Aβ aggregation and clearance, synaptic plasticity, neuroinflammation, lipid metabolism, mitochondrial function, and tau hyperphosphorylation. Due to the complexity of LOAD, an accurate description of the interdependence among all the related molecular mechanisms involved in the disease is needed for developing successful therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro R Roda
- Protein Design and Immunotherapy Group, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laia Montoliu-Gaya
- Protein Design and Immunotherapy Group, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Clinical Chemistry and Transfusion Medicine, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sandra Villegas
- Protein Design and Immunotherapy Group, Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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15
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Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: pathobiology and targeting strategies. Nat Rev Neurol 2019; 15:501-518. [PMID: 31367008 DOI: 10.1038/s41582-019-0228-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 635] [Impact Index Per Article: 127.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphism in the apolipoprotein E (APOE) gene is a major genetic risk determinant of late-onset Alzheimer disease (AD), with the APOE*ε4 allele conferring an increased risk and the APOE*ε2 allele conferring a decreased risk relative to the common APOE*ε3 allele. Strong evidence from clinical and basic research suggests that a major pathway by which APOE4 increases the risk of AD is by driving earlier and more abundant amyloid pathology in the brains of APOE*ε4 carriers. The number of amyloid-β (Aβ)-dependent and Aβ-independent pathways that are known to be differentially modulated by APOE isoforms is increasing. For example, evidence is accumulating that APOE influences tau pathology, tau-mediated neurodegeneration and microglial responses to AD-related pathologies. In addition, APOE4 is either pathogenic or shows reduced efficiency in multiple brain homeostatic pathways, including lipid transport, synaptic integrity and plasticity, glucose metabolism and cerebrovascular function. Here, we review the recent progress in clinical and basic research into the role of APOE in AD pathogenesis. We also discuss how APOE can be targeted for AD therapy using a precision medicine approach.
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16
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Drummond E, Goñi F, Liu S, Prelli F, Scholtzova H, Wisniewski T. Potential Novel Approaches to Understand the Pathogenesis and Treat Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2019; 64:S299-S312. [PMID: 29562516 DOI: 10.3233/jad-179909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
There is growing genetic and proteomic data highlighting the complexity of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Greater use of unbiased "omics" approaches is being increasingly recognized as essential for the future development of effective AD research, that need to better reflect the multiple distinct pathway abnormalities that can drive AD pathology. The track record of success in AD clinical trials thus far has been very poor. In part, this high failure rate has been related to the premature translation of highly successful results in animal models that mirror only limited aspects of AD pathology to humans. We highlight our recent efforts to increase use of human tissue to gain a better understanding of the AD pathogenesis subtype variety and to develop several distinct therapeutic approaches tailored to address this diversity. These therapeutic approaches include the blocking of the Aβ/apoE interaction, stimulation of innate immunity, and the simultaneous blocking of Aβ/tau oligomer toxicity. We believe that future successful therapeutic approaches will need to be combined to better reflect the complexity of the abnormal pathways triggered in AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Drummond
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Fernando Goñi
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shan Liu
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Frances Prelli
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Henrieta Scholtzova
- Department of Neurology, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Wisniewski
- Departments of Neurology, Pathology and Psychiatry, Center for Cognitive Neurology, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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17
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Krivinko JM, Erickson SL, Ding Y, Sun Z, Penzes P, MacDonald ML, Yates NA, Ikonomovic MD, Lopez OL, Sweet RA, Kofler J. Synaptic Proteome Compensation and Resilience to Psychosis in Alzheimer's Disease. Am J Psychiatry 2018; 175:999-1009. [PMID: 30021459 PMCID: PMC6167138 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2018.17080858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The presence of psychosis in Alzheimer's disease denotes a phenotype with more rapid cognitive deterioration than in Alzheimer's disease without psychosis. Discovery of novel pharmacotherapies that engage therapeutic targets for prevention or treatment of Alzheimer's disease with psychosis would benefit from identifying the neurobiology of resilience to psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. The primary objective of this study was to determine whether alterations in the synaptic proteome were associated with resilience to psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease and, if present, were independent of neuropathologic burden. METHOD Quantitative immunohistochemistry was used to measure multiple neuropathologies in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex from subjects with early and middle-stage Alzheimer's disease who differed in psychosis status. Synaptic proteins were quantified by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in gray matter homogenates from these subjects and from neuropathologically unaffected subjects. The synaptic proteome was similarly evaluated in cortical gray matter homogenate and in postsynaptic density fractions from an APPswe/PSEN1dE9 mouse model of amyloidosis with germline reduction in Kalrn, which has been shown to confer resilience to progression of psychosis-associated behaviors relative to APPswe/PSEN1dE9 alone. RESULTS Subjects resilient to psychotic symptoms in Alzheimer's disease had higher levels of synaptic proteins compared with those with psychosis and unaffected control subjects. Neuropathologic burden predicted less than 20% of the variance in psychosis status and did not account for the synaptic protein level differences between groups. Reduction of Kalrn in APPswe/PSEN1dE9 mice resulted in higher levels of synaptic proteins in cortical homogenate and normalized protein levels in the postsynaptic density. CONCLUSIONS Accumulation of synaptic proteins, particularly those that are enriched in the postsynaptic density, is associated with resilience to psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. One candidate mechanism for this synaptic proteome compensation is alteration in levels of proteins that facilitate the transport of synaptic proteins to and from the postsynaptic density.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josh M Krivinko
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Susan L Erickson
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Ying Ding
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Zhe Sun
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Peter Penzes
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Matthew L MacDonald
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Nathan A Yates
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Milos D Ikonomovic
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Oscar L Lopez
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Robert A Sweet
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
| | - Julia Kofler
- From the Departments of Psychiatry, Cell Biology, Neurology, and Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh; the Department of Biostatistics, University of Pittsburgh School of Public Health, Pittsburgh; the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago; the Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh; and the Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh
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18
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Zhao N, Liu CC, Qiao W, Bu G. Apolipoprotein E, Receptors, and Modulation of Alzheimer's Disease. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:347-357. [PMID: 28434655 PMCID: PMC5599322 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a lipid carrier in both the peripheral and the central nervous systems. Lipid-loaded apoE lipoprotein particles bind to several cell surface receptors to support membrane homeostasis and injury repair in the brain. Considering prevalence and relative risk magnitude, the ε4 allele of the APOE gene is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). ApoE4 contributes to AD pathogenesis by modulating multiple pathways, including but not limited to the metabolism, aggregation, and toxicity of amyloid-β peptide, tauopathy, synaptic plasticity, lipid transport, glucose metabolism, mitochondrial function, vascular integrity, and neuroinflammation. Emerging knowledge on apoE-related pathways in the pathophysiology of AD presents new opportunities for AD therapy. We describe the biochemical and biological features of apoE and apoE receptors in the central nervous system. We also discuss the evidence and mechanisms addressing differential effects of apoE isoforms and the role of apoE receptors in AD pathogenesis, with a particular emphasis on the clinical and preclinical studies related to amyloid-β pathology. Finally, we summarize the current strategies of AD therapy targeting apoE, and postulate that effective strategies require an apoE isoform-specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Zhao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Chia-Chen Liu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Wenhui Qiao
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, 32224, USA
| | - Guojun Bu
- Department of Neuroscience, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, Florida; Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
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CSF tau is associated with impaired cortical plasticity, cognitive decline and astrocyte survival only in APOE4-positive Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13728. [PMID: 29062035 PMCID: PMC5653826 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-14204-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients, apopoliprotein (APOE) polymorphism is the main genetic factor associated with more aggressive clinical course. However, the interaction between cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tau protein levels and APOE genotype has been scarcely investigated. A possible key mechanism invokes the dysfunction of synaptic plasticity. We investigated how CSF tau interacts with APOE genotype in AD patients. We firstly explored whether CSF tau levels and APOE genotype influence disease progression and long-term potentiation (LTP)-like cortical plasticity as measured by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in AD patients. Then, we incubated normal human astrocytes (NHAs) with CSF collected from sub-groups of AD patients to determine whether APOE genotype and CSF biomarkers influence astrocytes survival. LTP-like cortical plasticity differed between AD patients with apolipoprotein E4 (APOE4) and apolipoprotein E3 (APOE3) genotype. Higher CSF tau levels were associated with more impaired LTP-like cortical plasticity and faster disease progression in AD patients with APOE4 but not APOE3 genotype. Apoptotic activity was higher when cells were incubated with CSF from AD patients with APOE4 and high tau levels. CSF tau is detrimental on cortical plasticity, disease progression and astrocyte survival only when associated with APOE4 genotype. This is relevant for new therapeutic approaches targeting tau.
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Proteomic differences in amyloid plaques in rapidly progressive and sporadic Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neuropathol 2017; 133:933-954. [PMID: 28258398 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-017-1691-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Rapidly progressive Alzheimer's disease (rpAD) is a particularly aggressive form of Alzheimer's disease, with a median survival time of 7-10 months after diagnosis. Why these patients have such a rapid progression of Alzheimer's disease is currently unknown. To further understand pathological differences between rpAD and typical sporadic Alzheimer's disease (sAD) we used localized proteomics to analyze the protein differences in amyloid plaques in rpAD and sAD. Label-free quantitative LC-MS/MS was performed on amyloid plaques microdissected from rpAD and sAD patients (n = 22 for each patient group) and protein expression differences were quantified. On average, 913 ± 30 (mean ± SEM) proteins were quantified in plaques from each patient and 279 of these proteins were consistently found in plaques from every patient. We found significant differences in protein composition between rpAD and sAD plaques. We found that rpAD plaques contained significantly higher levels of neuronal proteins (p = 0.0017) and significantly lower levels of astrocytic proteins (p = 1.08 × 10-6). Unexpectedly, cumulative protein differences in rpAD plaques did not suggest accelerated typical sAD. Plaques from patients with rpAD were particularly abundant in synaptic proteins, especially those involved in synaptic vesicle release, highlighting the potential importance of synaptic dysfunction in the accelerated development of plaque pathology in rpAD. Combined, our data provide new direct evidence that amyloid plaques do not all have the same protein composition and that the proteomic differences in plaques could provide important insight into the factors that contribute to plaque development. The cumulative protein differences in rpAD plaques suggest rpAD may be a novel subtype of Alzheimer's disease.
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Sen A, Nelson TJ, Alkon DL. ApoE isoforms differentially regulates cleavage and secretion of BDNF. Mol Brain 2017; 10:19. [PMID: 28569173 PMCID: PMC5452344 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-017-0301-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E4 (ApoE4) is a major genetic risk factor for sporadic or late onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is decreased by 3 to 4-fold in the brains of AD patients at autopsy. ApoE4 mice also have reduced BDNF levels. However, there have been no reports relating the different ApoE isoforms or AD to differential regulation of BDNF. Here we report that in the hippocampal regions of AD patients both prepro-BDNF and pro-BDNF expression showed a 40 and 60% decrease respectively compared to that expression in the hippocampi of age-matched control patients. We further report that ApoE isoforms differentially regulate maturation and secretion of BDNF from primary human astrocytes. After 24 h, ApoE3 treated astrocytes secreted 1.75- fold higher pro-BDNF than ApoE2-treated astrocytes, and ApoE2-treated astrocytes secreted 3-fold more mature-BDNF (m-BDNF) than ApoE3-treated astrocytes. In contrast, ApoE4-treated cells secreted negligible amounts of m-BDNF or pro-BDNF. ApoE2 increased the level of intracellular pre-pro BDNF by 19.04 ± 6.68%, while ApoE4 reduced the pre-pro BDNF by 21.61 ± 5.9% compared to untreated cells. Similar results were also seen in ApoE2, ApoE3 or ApoE4 treated cells at 4 h. Together, these results indicate that an ApoE2 or ApoE3 mediated positive regulation of BDNF may be protective while ApoE4 related defects in BDNF processing could lead to AD pathophysiology. These interactions of the ApoE isoforms with BDNF may help explain the increased risk of AD associated with the ApoE4 isoform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhik Sen
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, 8 Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA.
| | - Thomas J Nelson
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, 8 Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
| | - Daniel L Alkon
- Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute, 8 Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
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Loss of precuneus dendritic spines immunopositive for spinophilin is related to cognitive impairment in early Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Aging 2017; 55:159-166. [PMID: 28259365 PMCID: PMC5440205 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2017.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Precuneus (PreC) cortex is affected with amyloid plaques early in Alzheimer's disease (AD), and this pathology may be associated with alterations in PreC synapses and cognitive impairment. We quantified the spinophilin-immunoreactive (ir) dendritic spine density and the intensity of spinophilin immunofluorescence, the latter as a measure of relative protein levels of spinophilin, in PreC lamina III from 33 subjects with clinical diagnoses of no cognitive impairment (NCI), mild cognitive impairment (MCI), mild-moderate AD (mAD), or severe AD (sAD). Both measures of spinophilin were lower in mAD and sAD compared with NCI. The MCI group had higher protein levels of spinophilin compared with mAD and sAD, and higher spinophilin-ir dendritic spine density compared with sAD. Lower spinophilin-ir dendritic spine density and relative protein levels of spinophilin were associated with greater amyloid beta (Aβ) plaque burden, detected with a derivative of Pittsburgh compound-B (6-CN-PiB), and worse cognitive performance. Clinical onset of AD is marked by the loss of PreC spinophilin-ir dendritic spines that is related to Aβ pathology and may contribute to cognitive symptoms early in the disease.
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