Toxicological evaluations of long-term consumption of Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill fruits in male and female adult rats

Hepatoprotective Native Plants Documented in Brazilian Traditional Medicine Literature: Current Knowledge and Prospects

The native flora of Brazil covers a large biodiversity of plants, some of which have important pharmacological properties. Ethnobotanical studies have established that the folk use of plants for hepatobiliary disorders is very common in Brazil. This review aimed to compile, describe and discuss the main native Brazilian medicinal plants used as hepatoprotective agents listed on 25 books by authors from various regions in the country. Based on the 153 species found, a comprehensive analysis of the most relevant scientific studies is presented, including Piper umbellatum, Echinodorus macrophyllus, Fevillea trilobata and Achyrocline satureioides. Some medicinal plants share both a large number of citations and scientific evidence to corroborate their hepatoprotective effects, including Solanum paniculatum, Baccharis crispa and Phyllanthus niruri, which could be of interest to develop new phytomedicines. Additionally, some active ingredients are indicated as being responsible for the liver protective effects described, particularly phenolic compounds (flavonoids, coumestans and lignans).

In Vitro Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of Flower, Leaf, and Stem Extracts of Korean Mint

Traditionally, Agastache rugosa (Korean mint) has been widely used to treat various infectious diseases. The aims of this study were to: (i) determine the phenylpropanoid content of the plant using high-performance liquid chromatography; (ii) undertake total anthocyanin, flavonoid, and phenolic assays; (iii) and evaluate the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of the methanol extracts from the stem, leaves, and flowers of Korean mint. The total anthocyanin, flavonoid, and phenolic content assays showed that the flowers had higher phenolic levels than the stem and leaves. The reducing power, the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl superoxide radical scavenging abilities, and the hydrogen peroxide radical scavenging activities were also evaluated so that the antioxidant activities of the extracts from the different plant parts could be evaluated. The flower extracts revealed higher antioxidant properties than the other parts. The antibacterial properties of the methanol extracts from A. rugosa were analyzed by the disc diffusion method, and the flower extracts had higher antibacterial activities against the six bacterial strains used in the study than the other parts. This study provides information on the synergistic antioxidant and antibacterial properties of phenolics derived from the different parts of Korean mint.

In vitro cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and antigenotoxicity assessment of Solanum lycocarpum hydroalcoholic extract

CONTEXT

Solanum lycocarpum A. St.-Hil. (Solanaceae), popularly known as 'fruta-do-lobo' (wolf fruit), 'lobeira' and 'jurubebão', is commonly used by native people of Central Brazil in powder form or as a hydroalcoholic extract for the management of diabetes and obesity and to decrease cholesterol levels.

OBJECTIVE

The present study determines the possible cytotoxic, genotoxic and antigenotoxic activities of hydroalcoholic extract of the S. lycocarpum fruits (SL).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The clonogenic efficiency assay was used to determine the cytotoxicity. Three concentrations of SL (16, 32 and 64 μg/mL) were used for the evaluation of its genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential on V79 cells using the micronucleus and comet assays. In the antigenotoxicity assays, the cells were treated simultaneously with SL and the alkylating agent methyl methanesulphonate (MMS, 44 μg/mL for the micronucleus assay and 22 μg/mL for the comet assay) as an inducer of micronuclei and DNA damage.

RESULTS

The results showed that SL was cytotoxic at concentrations up to 64 μg/mL. No significant differences in the rate of chromosome or DNA damage were observed between cultures treated with SL and the control group. In addition, the frequencies of micronuclei and DNA damage induced by MMS were significantly reduced after treatment with SL. The damage reduction percentage ranged from 68.1% to 79.2% and 12.1% to 16.5% for micronucleus and comet assays, respectively.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

SL exerted no genotoxic effect and exhibited chemopreventive activity against both genomic and chromosome damage induced by MMS.

Effects of the extract and glycoalkaloids of Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill on Giardia lamblia trophozoites

Background:

Solanum lycocarpum has great importance for food and medicinal traditional use. Recently, it was also evidenced that extracts of S. lycocarpum St. Hill (Solanaceae) and its glycoalkaloids, solamargine (Sg) and solasonine (Sn), are active against flagellated protozoa.

Objective:

The aim was to assess the effects of the extract of S. lycocarpum and its glycoalkaloids, Sn, and Sg, on Giardia lamblia trophozoites.

Materials and Methods:

A crude extract (96%ethanol) (EB) of fruits of S. lycocarpum was prepared and fractionated by partition with 40%ethanol and n-hexane: Ethyl acetate. Glycoalkaloids, Sn, and Sg were recognized in the ethanol fraction (EF) and further isolated by column chromatography. EB, EF, the isolated Sn and Sg and a mixture (1:1) of both glycoalkaloids were tested on cultures of G. lamblia trophozoites and macrophages.

Results:

EB, EF and glycoalkaloids of S. lycocarpum showed activity against Giardia (95.0 < Inhibitory concentration 50 [IC₅₀] ≤120.3 μg/mL). The mixture of glycoalkaloids (1:1) was more active (IC₅₀ = 13.23 μg/mL) than each one individually, suggesting a synergic effect. Moreover, the mixture is nontoxic to macrophage cells.

Conclusion:

Results are optimistic concerning the anti-Giardia potential of the mixture Sn + Sg. Further studies, in vitro and in vivo, will be required to consolidate the usefulness of the mixture of Sn + Sg in view of a new therapeutic strategy for giardiasis.

In vivo assessment of genotoxic, antigenotoxic and anticarcinogenic activities of Solanum lycocarpum fruits glycoalkaloidic extract

The fruits of Solanum lycocarpum, known as wolf-fruit, are used in folk medicine, and because of that we have evaluated both the genotoxic potential of its glycoalkaloidic extract (SL) and its influence on the genotoxicity induced by methyl methanesulfonate. Furthermore, the potential blocking effect of SL intake in the initial stage of colon carcinogenesis in Wistar rats was investigated in a short-term (4-week) bioassay using aberrant crypt foci (ACF) as biomarker. The genotoxic potential was evaluated using the Swiss mice peripheral blood micronucleus test. The animals were treated with different doses of SL (15, 30 and 60 mg/kg b.w.) for 14 days, and the peripheral blood samples were collected at 48 h, 7 days and 14 days after starting the treatment. For antigenotoxicity assessment, MMS was administered on the 14^th day, and after 24 h the harvesting of bone marrow and liver cells was performed, for the micronucleus and comet assays, respectively. In the ACF assay, male Wistar rats were given four subcutaneous injections of the carcinogen 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH, 40 mg/kg b.w.), twice a week, during two weeks to induce ACF. The treatment with SL (15, 30 and 60 mg/kg b.w.) was given for four weeks during and after carcinogen treatment to investigate the potential beneficial effects of SL on DMH-induced ACF. The results demonstrated that SL was not genotoxic in the mouse micronucleus test. In animals treated with SL and MMS, the frequencies of micronucleus and extensions of DNA damage were significantly reduced in comparison with the animals receiving only MMS. Regarding the ACF assay, SL significantly reduced the frequency of ACF induced by DMH.

Ethnobotanical and antimicrobial study of some selected medicinal plants used in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) as a potential source to cure infectious diseases

Background

Present investigation deals with antimicrobial screening of ten medicinally important plants used by the inhabitants of district Haripur, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) for different infectious diseases.

Methods

Aqueous, n-hexane and ethanolic extracts of each plant were tested for their antimicrobial activity against both Gram positive and Gram negative strains of bacteria, as well as strain of yeast. Agar well diffusion and broth dilution methods were used to determine the antimicrobial activity of different plant extracts.

Results

The results indicated that all plants exhibited antimicrobial activity against one or more test pathogens. Interestingly, extracts of three plants showed strong and broad spectrum activity as compared to rest of the extracts which demonstrated the moderate activity. On the whole ethanolic extracts exhibited maximum antimicrobial effect than their corresponding aqueous and n-hexane extracts, when compared with standard antibiotics i.e., Streptomycin and Tetracycline. Among various extracts, only ethanloic extract of Azadirachta indica and aqueous and ethanolic extracts of Eucalyptus globulus and Bergenia ciliata and ethanolic extract of Punica granatum were found to have potentially promising activity against test microorganisms.

Conclusion

Different plant extracts show promising antimicrobial activity justifying their usage in traditional medicines. This study will be continued to identify more plants with potential antimicrobial components.

In vitro leishmanicidal and cytotoxic activities of the glycoalkaloids from Solanum lycocarpum (Solanaceae) fruits

Leishmaniasis is an infection caused by a protozoan parasite of the genus Leishmania and is the second most prevalent parasitic protozoal disease after malaria in the world. We report the in vitro leishmanicidal activity on promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis and cytotoxicity, using LLCMK2 cells, of the glycoalkaloids from the fruits of Solanum lycocarpum, determined by colorimetric methods. The alkaloidic extract was obtained by acid-base extraction; solamargine and solasonine were isolated by silica-gel chromatography, followed by reversed-phase HPLC final purification. The alkaloidic extract, solamargine, solasonine, as well as the equimolar mixture of the glycoalkaloids solamargine and solasonine displayed leishmanicidal activity against promastigote forms of L. amazonensis, whereas the aglycone solasodine was inactive. After 24 and 72 h of incubation, most of the samples showed lower cytotoxicities (IC50 6.5 to 124 μM) as compared to leishmanicidal activity (IC50 1.1 to 23.6 μM). The equimolar mixture solamargine/solasonine was the most active with an IC50 value of 1.1 μM, after 72 h. Likewise, solamargine was the most active after 24 h with an IC50 value of 14.4 μM, both in comparison with the positive control amphotericin B.

Protective effects of steroidal alkaloids isolated from Solanum paniculatum L. against mitomycin cytotoxic and genotoxic actions

Solanum paniculatum L. is a plant species widespread throughout tropical America, especially in the Brazilian Cerrado region. It is used in Brazil for culinary purposes and in folk medicine to treat liver and gastric dysfunctions, as well as hangovers. Previous studies with S. paniculatum ethanolic leaf extract or ethanolic fruit extract demonstrated that they have no genotoxic activity neither in mice nor in bacterial strains, although their cytotoxicity and antigenotoxicity were demonstrated in higher doses. In order to assess the possible compounds responsible for the activities observed, we fractionated the ethanolic fruit extract of S. paniculatum, characterized by 1H and 13C NMR spectra, and evaluated two fractions containing steroidal alkaloids against mitomycin C (MMC) using the mouse bone marrow micronucleus test. Swiss mice were orally treated with different concentrations (25, 50, or 100 mg.kg−1) of each fraction simultaneously with a single intraperitonial dose of MMC (4 mg.kg−1). Antigenotoxicity was evaluated by using the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCE), whereas anticytotoxicity was assessed by the polychromatic and normochromatic erythrocytes ratio (PCE/NCE). Our results demonstrated that steroidal alkaloids isolated from S. paniculatum strongly protected cells against MMC aneugenic and/or clastogenic activities as well as modulated MMC cytotoxic action.

Antiproliferative activity of Solanum lycocarpum alkaloidic extract and their constituents, solamargine and solasonine, in tumor cell lines

Natural products are some of the important sources of new anticancer drugs. The Brazilian flora is considered one of the most diverse in the word, although not many large-scale pharmacological and phytochemical studies have been conducted to date. With this in mind, in the present study we evaluated the antiproliferative activity of Solanum lycocarpum fruit glycoalkaloid extract (SL) and its major compounds, solamargine (SM) and solasonine (SS), against different tumor cell lines: murine melanoma (B16F10), human colon carcinoma (HT29), human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), human cervical adenocarcinoma (HeLa), human hepatocellular liver carcinoma (HepG2) and human glioblastoma (MO59J, U343 and U251). The antiproliferative activity was evaluated using XTT assay and results were expressed as IC50. The most pronounced antiproliferative activity was observed for SM, with IC50 values ranging from 4.58 to 18.23 μg/mL. The lowest IC50 values were observed against HepG2, being 9.60 μg/mL for SL, 4.58 μg/mL for SM and 6.01 μg/mL for SS. Thus, SL, SM and SS demonstrated antiproliferative activity against the tumor cell lines tested, and were most effective against the HepG2 cell line.

Toxicological evaluation of 10% Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill fruit consumption in the diet of growing rats: hematological, biochemical and histopathological effects

Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill (Solanaceae) is a native shrub very common in the Brazilian savanna. The fruit of this plant contains steroidal glycoalkaloids that may disrupt the endocrine system. Because this plant is employed in folk medicine for the management of diabetes, obesity and decreasing cholesterol levels, the present study determined the possible toxic effects of exposure to S. lycocarpum fruit from weaning (21 days old) until adult age (8 weeks of treatment) in male and female rats. In male rats, the plant reduced weight gain, while few significant differences were observed in female animals. Slight significant differences were observed in food and water consumption and in hematological parameters in treated rats. Reductions in adrenal gland, spleen, heart, kidneys and thymus weights of treated males were observed, while increased relative weights were detected in the heart, epididymises, lungs, seminal vesicles, and testicles. In females, no differences were observed in organ weights and few differences were observed in relative weights of some organs. The histopathologic study showed no alteration between groups. Serum biochemical parameters showed triglyceride reductions in treated animals of both sexes; in females, an increase in albumin and alanine aminotransferase levels and a reduction in total protein levels were noted. The present data therefore demonstrate sex-related differences in S. lycocarpum toxicity.

Effect of Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill on various haematological parameters in diabetic rats

Solanum lycocarpum St. Hill (SL) is commonly used in Brazilian folk medicine. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the validity of the traditional therapeutic indication of SL as hypoglycaemic agent. The extract reduced glycemia to 92.4mg/dl in alloxan induced diabetic rats (230.5mg/dl). We also investigated the potential of SL as antioxidant (it reduced in 27% nitrate generation in diabetic animals). Our results also demonstrated that SL is not ulcerogenic and restored haemoglobin and haematocrit to normal values in diabetic animals.

Rats exposed to Solanum lycocarpum fruit in utero and during lactation: Neurochemical, behavioral and histopathological effects

Solanum lycocarpum St. Hil (Solanaceae) is a native shrub very common in the Brazilian savannah. This plant contains steroidal glycoalkaloids that can be transformed into an intermediate for steroidal drug production. In this way, it is very possible that these glycoalkaloids and its aglycone, once in the body by ingestion of S. lycocarpum fruits, may act by disrupting the endocrine system. Because its fruits may be consumed by pregnant animals in the fields, the present study determined the possible toxic effects of exposure to S. lycocarpum fruit (10% added in the diet) from gestation day (GD) 6 to postnatal day (PND) 07 in rat dams. The unripe fruits contained 0.6% of solamargine and 0.9% of solasonine. S. lycocarpum, 10% in the diet, during gestation and the beginning of lactation reduced intrauterine growth. In addition, 20% of the treated dams showed some dead pups at birth. Reduced body weight was observed from birth through adulthood in male and female offspring exposed to 10% S. lycocarpum unripe fruits. During adulthood, female offspring showed impaired sexual behavior and male offspring showed prominent degeneration of testis germinative cells, characterized by a reduced number of germ cells and vacuolation. Also, the exposed offspring showed reduced hypothalamic norepinephrine (NOR), vanillylmandelic acid (VMA), 3-methoxy-4-hydrophenylglycol (MHPG) and homovanillic acid (HVA) levels, and reduced striatum NOR, HVA, VMA, MHPG, dopamine (DA), dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and 5-hydroxyindolacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels. These results suggest that the fruit may act as an estrogen, with a long-term effect, impairing the receptive lordosis behavior of female offspring and promoting testis abnormalities in male offspring at adulthood. Finally, it appears to disrupt brain organization since important central monoamine level alterations were also observed.

Action of solamargine on TNFs and cisplatin-resistant human lung cancer cells

A loss of TNF receptors expression has been found in advanced lung cancers, and human A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells are resistant to the cytotoxic effects of TNF-alpha and cisplatin. Here, the mechanisms of the drug resistance of A549 were extensively studied by gene modulation of the cells by solamargine (SM) which was isolated from Solanum incanum herb. SM induced morphological changes of chromatin condensation, DNA fragmentation, and sub-G(1) peak in a DNA histogram of A549 cells, indicating cell death by apoptosis. SM elevated the expressions of TNF-R1 and -R2 and overcame the resistance of A549 cells to TNF-alpha and -beta. The recruitment of TRADD, FADD, and activation of caspase-8 and -3 in SM-treated A549 cells evidenced the activation of TNFRs signal transduction. In addition, release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, down-expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L), up-regulation of Bax, and caspase-9 activities were observed in SM-treated A549 cells. Combinational treatment of SM and cisplatin synergistically enhanced caspase-8, -9, and -3 activities in A549 cells. Thus, SM sensitizes A549 cells through TNFRs and mitochondria-mediated pathways and may have anticancer potential against TNFs- and cisplatin-resistance lung cancer cells.