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Máquina M, Opiyo MA, Cuamba N, Marrenjo D, Rodrigues M, Armando S, Nhate S, Luis F, Saúte F, Candrinho B, Lobo NF, Paaijmans KP. Multiple Anopheles species complicate downstream analysis and decision-making in a malaria pre-elimination area in southern Mozambique. Malar J 2024; 23:23. [PMID: 38238774 PMCID: PMC10797956 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-024-04842-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Different anopheline species (even within a species group/complex) can differ in their feeding and resting behaviours, which impact both malaria transmission patterns as well as the efficacy of vector control interventions. While morphological identification of sampled specimens is an important first step towards understanding species diversity and abundance, misidentification can result in the implementation of less effective vector control measures, and consequently smaller reductions in the number of local malaria cases. Focusing on southern Mozambique, a malaria pre-elimination area where malaria remains persistent, the aims of this preliminary study were to use molecular identification (CO1 and ITS2 barcoding) to (1) validate the results from the morphological identification (with a particular focus on Anopheles pharoensis and Anopheles squamosus), and (2) have a closer look at the Anopheles coustani group (which includes Anopheles tenebrosus and Anopheles ziemanni). METHODS Female anopheline mosquitoes (n = 81) were identified morphologically and subsequently sequenced at the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) and/or cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (CO1) loci towards species determination. RESULTS Out of the 62 specimens that were identified morphologically to species, 4 (6.5%) were misidentified. Regarding the An. coustani group, morphological identification showed that several members are present in southern Mozambique, including An. coustani sensu lato (s.l.), An. ziemanni and An. tenebrosus. However, based on both ITS2 and CO1 sequences, the exact species remains unknown for the latter two members until voucher sequences are available for comparison. CONCLUSION The reason(s) for morphological misidentification of anopheline mosquitoes need to be mitigated. This is usually related to both the capacity (i.e. training) of the microscopist to identify anopheline species, and the information provided in the dichotomous identification key. As the An. coustani complex contributes to (residual) malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa, it may play a role in the observed persistent malaria in southern Mozambique. A better baseline characterizing of the local anophelines species diversity and behaviours will allow us to improve entomological surveillance strategies, better understand the impact of vector control on each local vector species, and identify new approaches to target those vector species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara Máquina
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Fundação Manhiça, Manhica, Mozambique
| | - Mercy A Opiyo
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Fundação Manhiça, Manhica, Mozambique
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nelson Cuamba
- Programa Nacional de Controlo da Malária, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
- PMI VectorLink Project, Abt Associates Inc., Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Dulcisária Marrenjo
- Programa Nacional de Controlo da Malária, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | | | | | - Sheila Nhate
- Maputo Provincial Health Service, Matola, Mozambique
| | - Fabião Luis
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Fundação Manhiça, Manhica, Mozambique
| | - Francisco Saúte
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Fundação Manhiça, Manhica, Mozambique
| | - Baltazar Candrinho
- Programa Nacional de Controlo da Malária, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Neil F Lobo
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
| | - Krijn P Paaijmans
- Centro de Investigação em Saúde de Manhiça (CISM), Fundação Manhiça, Manhica, Mozambique.
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain.
- Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
- Simon A. Levin Mathematical, Computational and Modeling Sciences Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
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Kampango A, Pinto J, Abílio AP, Machoe E, Matusse J, McCall PJ. Characterisation of human exposure to nocturnal biting by malaria and arbovirus vectors in a rural community in Chókwè district, southern Mozambique. Wellcome Open Res 2023; 8:193. [PMID: 37484481 PMCID: PMC10357080 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.19278.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Understanding the magnitude of human exposure to mosquito biting is fundamental to reduce pathogen transmission. Here we report on a study quantifying the levels of mosquitoes attacking humans throughout the night in a rural area of Southern Mozambique. Methods: Surveys were carried out in Massavasse village, southern Mozambique. The abundance and composition of host-seeking mosquito communities at night were assessed by human-landing catches (HLC) at one-hour intervals. Periods when people were located predominantly outdoors or indoors were used to estimate the amount of residents' exposure to mosquito bites in either location, to explore the potential impact a bed net could have had in reducing biting by each vector species. Results: A total of 69,758 host-seeking female mosquitoes comprising 23 species in four genera were collected. The exposure to biting by virtually all vector species was consistently high outdoors, typically at early evening and morning, with exception of An. gambiae s.l which was likely of biting a person with nearly same intensity indoors and outdoors throughout the night. Bed nets use could have reduced biting by An. gambiae s.l (dominated by An. arabiensis), Ma. africana, Ma. uniformis, Cx. pipiens, Cx. antennatus, and Cx. poicilipes by 53%, 47%, 46%, 38%, 31%, and 28% respectively, compared to non-users. Conversely, a bed net user would have had little protection against An. pharoensis, An. ziemanni, An. tenebrosus, and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus biting exposures. Conclusions: This study showed that Massavasse residents were exposed to high levels of outdoor biting by malaria and arbovirus vectors that abound in the village. The findings help to identify entomological drivers of persistent malaria transmission in Mozambique and identify a wide range of arbovirus vectors nocturnally active in rural areas, many with outbreak potential. The study highlights the need for a surveillance system for monitoring arboviral diseases vectors in Mozambique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayubo Kampango
- Sector de Estudo de Vectores, Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INS), Maputo, Villa de Marracuene EN1, Plot 3943, Mozambique
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa
| | - João Pinto
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine, Institute of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (IHMT), Lisbon, Rua da Junqueira, 100 1349-008, Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Abílio
- Sector de Estudo de Vectores, Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INS), Maputo, Villa de Marracuene EN1, Plot 3943, Mozambique
| | - Elias Machoe
- Sector de Estudo de Vectores, Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INS), Maputo, Villa de Marracuene EN1, Plot 3943, Mozambique
| | - Júlio Matusse
- Sector de Estudo de Vectores, Instituto Nacional de Saúde (INS), Maputo, Villa de Marracuene EN1, Plot 3943, Mozambique
| | - Philip J. McCall
- Vector Biology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM), Liverpool, Pembroke Place, L3 5QA, UK
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Alafo C, Martí-Soler H, Máquina M, Malheia A, Aswat AS, Koekemoer LL, Colborn J, Lobo NF, Tatarsky A, Williams YA, Marrenjo D, Cuamba N, Rabinovich R, Alonso P, Aide P, Saúte F, Paaijmans KP. To spray or target mosquitoes another way: focused entomological intelligence guides the implementation of indoor residual spraying in southern Mozambique. Malar J 2022; 21:215. [PMID: 35820899 PMCID: PMC9275269 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-022-04233-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To eliminate malaria in southern Mozambique, the National Malaria Control Programme and its partners are scaling up indoor residual spraying (IRS) activities in two provinces, Gaza and Inhambane. An entomological surveillance planning tool (ESPT) was used to answer the programmatic question of whether IRS would be effective in target geographies, given limited information on local vector bionomics. METHODS Entomological intelligence was collected in six sentinel sites at the end of the rainy season (April-May 2018) and the beginning of the dry season (June-July 2018). The primary objective was to provide an 'entomological snapshot' by collecting question-based, timely and high-quality data within one single week in each location. Host-seeking behaviour (both indoors and outdoors) was monitored by human-baited tent traps. Indoor resting behaviour was quantified by pyrethrum spray catches and window exit traps. RESULTS Five different species or species groups were identified: Anopheles funestus sensu lato (s.l.) (66.0%), Anopheles gambiae s.l. (14.0%), Anopheles pharoensis (1.4%), Anopheles tenebrosus (14.1%) and Anopheles ziemanni (4.5%). Anopheles funestus sensu stricto (s.s.) was the major vector among its sibling species, and 1.9% were positive for Plasmodium falciparum infections. Anopheles arabiensis was the most abundant vector species within the An. gambiae complex, but none tested positive for P. falciparum infections. Some An. tenebrosus were positive for P. falciparum (1.3%). When evaluating behaviours that impact IRS efficacy, i.e. endophily, the known primary vector An. funestus s.s., was found to rest indoors-demonstrating at least part of its population will be impacted by the intervention if insecticides are selected to which this vector is susceptible. However, other vector species, including An. gambiae s.l., An. tenebrosus, An. pharoensis and An. ziemanni, showed exophilic and exophagic behaviours in several of the districts surveilled. CONCLUSION The targeted approach to entomological surveillance was successful in collecting question-based entomological intelligence to inform decision-making about the use of IRS in specific districts. Endophilic An. funestus s.s. was documented as being the most prevalent and primary malaria vector suggesting that IRS can reduce malaria transmission, but the presence of other vector species both indoors and outdoors suggests that alternative vector control interventions that target these gaps in protection may increase the impact of vector control in southern Mozambique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celso Alafo
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
| | | | - Mara Máquina
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Arlindo Malheia
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Ayesha S Aswat
- WITS Research Institute for Malaria, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, & National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Lizette L Koekemoer
- WITS Research Institute for Malaria, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, & National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Neil F Lobo
- Eck Institute for Global Health, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN, USA
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Institute of Global Health Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Allison Tatarsky
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Institute of Global Health Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Yasmin A Williams
- Malaria Elimination Initiative, Institute of Global Health Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Dulcisária Marrenjo
- Programa Nacional de Controlo da Malária, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Nelson Cuamba
- Programa Nacional de Controlo da Malária, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
- PMI VectorLink Project, Abt Associates Inc, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Regina Rabinovich
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
- Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Pedro Alonso
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pedro Aide
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
- Instituto Nacional da Saúde, Ministério da Saúde, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Francisco Saúte
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique
| | - Krijn P Paaijmans
- Centro de Investigação Em Saúde de Manhiça, Fundação Manhiça, Maputo, Mozambique.
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain.
- Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
- The Biodesign Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
- Simon A. Levin Mathematical, Computational and Modeling Sciences Center, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
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Bartilol B, Omedo I, Mbogo C, Mwangangi J, Rono MK. Bionomics and ecology of Anopheles merus along the East and Southern Africa coast. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:84. [PMID: 33509262 PMCID: PMC7842043 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04582-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria transmission persists despite the scale-up of interventions such as long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). Understanding the entomological drivers of transmission is key for the design of effective and sustainable tools to address the challenge. Recent research findings indicate a shift in vector populations from the notorious Anopheles gambiae (s.s.) as a dominant vector to other species as one of the factors contributing to the persistence of malaria transmission. However, there are gaps in the literature regarding the minor vector species which are increasingly taking a lead role in malaria transmission. Currently, minor malaria vectors have behavioural plasticity, which allows their evasion of vector control tools currently in use. To address this, we have reviewed the role of Anopheles merus, a saltwater mosquito species that is becoming an important vector of malaria transmission along the East and Southern African coast. We performed a literature review from PubMed and Google Scholar and reviewed over 50 publications relating to An. merus's bionomics, taxonomy, spatial-temporal distribution and role in malaria transmission. We found that An. merus is an important vector of malaria and that it contributes to residual malaria transmission because of its exophilic tendencies, insecticide resistance and densities that peak during the dry seasons as the freshwater mosquitoes decline. Spatial and temporal studies have also shown that this species has increased its geographical range, densities and vectorial capacity over time. In this review, we highlight the resting behaviour and breeding habitats of this mosquito, which could be targeted for surveillance studies and control interventions. ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Bartilol
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya. .,Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya.
| | - Irene Omedo
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya.,Big Data Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Charles Mbogo
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Joseph Mwangangi
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya.,Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Vector Disease Control, Kwale, Kenya
| | - Martin K Rono
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya. .,Pwani University Bioscience Research Centre (PUBReC), Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya.
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Kipyab PC, Khaemba BM, Mwangangi JM, Mbogo CM. The bionomics of Anopheles merus (Diptera: Culicidae) along the Kenyan coast. Parasit Vectors 2013; 6:37. [PMID: 23410133 PMCID: PMC3584914 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anopheles merus, a sibling species of the Anopheles gambiae complex occurs along the East African coast but its biology and role in malaria transmission in this region is poorly understood. We evaluated the blood feeding pattern and the role of this species in malaria transmission in Malindi district, Coastal Kenya. METHODS Adult mosquitoes were collected indoors by CDC light traps and Pyrethrum Spray Catch and outdoors by CDC light traps. Anopheles females were identified to species by morphological characteristics and sibling species of An. gambiae complex distinguished by rDNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Screening for host blood meal sources and presence or absence of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite proteins was achieved by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA). RESULTS Anopheles merus comprised 77.8% of the 387 Anopheles gambiae s.l adults that were collected. Other sibling species of Anopheles gambiae s.l identified in the study site included An. arabiensis(3.6%), and An. gambiae s.s. (8%). The human blood index for An. merus was 0.12, while the sporozoite rate was 0.3%. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that An. merus can play a minor role in malaria transmission along the Kenyan Coast and should be a target for vector control which in turn could be applied in designing and implementing mosquito control programmes targeting marsh-breeding mosquitoes; with the ultimate goal being to reduce the transmission of malaria associated with these vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela C Kipyab
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, Center for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya.
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Sinka ME, Bangs MJ, Manguin S, Coetzee M, Mbogo CM, Hemingway J, Patil AP, Temperley WH, Gething PW, Kabaria CW, Okara RM, Van Boeckel T, Godfray HCJ, Harbach RE, Hay SI. The dominant Anopheles vectors of human malaria in Africa, Europe and the Middle East: occurrence data, distribution maps and bionomic précis. Parasit Vectors 2010; 3:117. [PMID: 21129198 PMCID: PMC3016360 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 406] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Accepted: 12/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background This is the second in a series of three articles documenting the geographical distribution of 41 dominant vector species (DVS) of human malaria. The first paper addressed the DVS of the Americas and the third will consider those of the Asian Pacific Region. Here, the DVS of Africa, Europe and the Middle East are discussed. The continent of Africa experiences the bulk of the global malaria burden due in part to the presence of the An. gambiae complex. Anopheles gambiae is one of four DVS within the An. gambiae complex, the others being An. arabiensis and the coastal An. merus and An. melas. There are a further three, highly anthropophilic DVS in Africa, An. funestus, An. moucheti and An. nili. Conversely, across Europe and the Middle East, malaria transmission is low and frequently absent, despite the presence of six DVS. To help control malaria in Africa and the Middle East, or to identify the risk of its re-emergence in Europe, the contemporary distribution and bionomics of the relevant DVS are needed. Results A contemporary database of occurrence data, compiled from the formal literature and other relevant resources, resulted in the collation of information for seven DVS from 44 countries in Africa containing 4234 geo-referenced, independent sites. In Europe and the Middle East, six DVS were identified from 2784 geo-referenced sites across 49 countries. These occurrence data were combined with expert opinion ranges and a suite of environmental and climatic variables of relevance to anopheline ecology to produce predictive distribution maps using the Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) method. Conclusions The predicted geographic extent for the following DVS (or species/suspected species complex*) is provided for Africa: Anopheles (Cellia) arabiensis, An. (Cel.) funestus*, An. (Cel.) gambiae, An. (Cel.) melas, An. (Cel.) merus, An. (Cel.) moucheti and An. (Cel.) nili*, and in the European and Middle Eastern Region: An. (Anopheles) atroparvus, An. (Ano.) labranchiae, An. (Ano.) messeae, An. (Ano.) sacharovi, An. (Cel.) sergentii and An. (Cel.) superpictus*. These maps are presented alongside a bionomics summary for each species relevant to its control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianne E Sinka
- Spatial Ecology and Epidemiology Group, Tinbergen Building, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK.
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Odiere M, Bayoh MN, Gimnig J, Vulule J, Irungu L, Walker E. Sampling outdoor, resting Anopheles gambiae and other mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in western Kenya with clay pots. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2007; 44:14-22. [PMID: 17294916 PMCID: PMC4106366 DOI: 10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[14:soraga]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Clay pots were analyzed as devices for sampling the outdoor resting fraction of Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) and other mosquito species in a rural, western Kenya. Clay pots (Anopheles gambiae resting pots, herein AgREPOTs), outdoor pit shelters, indoor pyrethrum spray collections (PSC), and Colombian curtain exit traps were compared in collections done biweekly for nine intervals from April to June 2005 in 20 housing compounds. Of 10,517 mosquitoes sampled, 4,668 An. gambiae s.l. were sampled in total of which 63% were An. gambiae s.s. (46% female) and 37% were An. arabiensis (66% female). The clay pots were useful and practical for sampling both sexes of An. gambiae s.l. Additionally, 617 An. funestus (58% female) and 5,232 Culex spp. (males and females together) were collected. Temporal changes in abundance of An. gambiae s.l. were similarly revealed by all four sampling methods, indicating that the clay pots could be used as devices to quantify variation in mosquito population density. Dispersion patterns of the different species and sexes fit well the negative binomial distribution, indicating that the mosquitoes were aggregated in distribution. Aside from providing a useful sampling tool, the AgREPOT also may be useful as a delivery vehicle for insecticides or pathogens to males and females that enter and rest in them.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Odiere
- Vector Biology and Control Research Centre, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
- Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - M. N. Bayoh
- Vector Biology and Control Research Centre, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - J. Gimnig
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Malaria Branch, Chamblee, GA 30341
| | - J. Vulule
- Vector Biology and Control Research Centre, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - L. Irungu
- Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - E. Walker
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824
- Corresponding author,
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