Teratogenic effects of chromium (vi) in environment as evidenced by the impact on larvae of amphibianRana Tigrina:implications in the environmental management of chromium

Metals, pesticides, and emerging contaminants on water bodies from agricultural areas and the effects on a native amphibian

In the Paraná River lower basin, an important agro-productive area of Argentina, crop fields and cattle breeding activities are common and may affect water quality. So, the aim of this study was to analyze the impacts of cattle breeding and agricultural activities on a stream from Buenos Aires, through physicochemical parameters (metals, pesticides, and emerging contaminants) and ecotoxicological parameters with Rhinella arenarum larvae, a native amphibian species. Three sites were selected on an ordinary plain stream that goes through agricultural fields and a cattle breeding establishment (upstream -S1-, near -S2- and downstream -S3- the establishment). Physicochemical parameters were measured in situ (in water) and in laboratory (in water and sediment samples: metals, pesticides, ivermectin and oxytetracycline). A semi-static chronic toxicity bioassay (504 h) was performed with water samples, and neurotoxicity, oxidative stress and genotoxicity biomarkers were measured after acute exposure (96 h). According to the index, a degradation in the water quality was observed in all sites. Ivermectin (8.03 mg/kg) and oxytetracycline (1.9 mg/kg) were detected in sediment samples from S2. Pesticides were detected in all sites, mainly in water samples: S1 presented the highest variability (7 residues) and in S3 AMPA, glyphosate and acetochlor concentrations were higher (10.3, 22.4 and 23.8 μg/L). Also, all sites significantly produced lethality at chronic exposure. Lethality at 504h was 40% for S1, 56.66% for S2 and 93.33% for S3. At acute exposure, the oxidative stress biomarkers were altered on R. arenarum larvae exposed to all sites and the neurotoxicity biomarkers were altered on larvae exposed to S1 and S3. Water quality was severely degraded by the surrounding agricultural and cattle breeding activities, which may represent a threat to the ecosystems.

Inhibition of Metamorphosis, Thyroid Gland, and Skeletal Ossification Induced by Hexavalent Chromium in Bufo gargarizans Larvae

Hexavalent chromium (Cr [VI]) is one of the major detrimental heavy metal pollutants. In the present study, Bufo gargarizans were exposed to 0, 52, 104, 208, and 416 μg/L Cr (VI) from Gosner stage 2 until metamorphosis; and growth, development, and histological characteristics of the thyroid gland and skeletal ossification were examined. The results demonstrated that the survival rate of larvae exposed to Cr (VI) was not different from that measured in animals from the control group. However, high levels of Cr (VI) (104, 208, and 416 μg/L) were associated with significantly delayed growth and development. The suppression of skeletal ossification was observed at high Cr (VI) levels. Besides, histological alterations of the thyroid gland, such as follicular cell hyperplasia, colloid depletion, and peripheral colloid vacuolation, were found in 52 to 416 μg/L Cr (VI) treatments. The results of the present study highlight reductions in growth and development as well as percent metamorphosis and skeletal ossification due to histological alteration of the thyroid gland during exposure to Cr (VI) in B. gargarizans larvae. The present investigation could provide a basis for understanding the detrimental effects of Cr (VI) in amphibian larvae. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2474-2483. © 2021 SETAC.

Endocrine disruption, oxidative stress and lipometabolic disturbance of Bufo gargarizans embryos exposed to hexavalent chromium

The aim of the current study was to determine the potential developmental and metabolic abnormalities caused by Cr (VI) exposure on Bufo gargarizans (B. gargarizans) embryos. B. gargarizans embryos were treated with different concentrations of Cr (VI) (13, 52, 104, 208, and 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1) for 6 days. Morphological abnormalities, total length, weight and developmental stage were monitored. Malformations of embryos were also examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, the transcript levels of several genes associated with lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and thyroid hormones signaling pathways were also determined. Our results showed a time-dependent inhibitory effect of Cr (VI) on the growth and development of B. gargarizans embryos. On day 4, total length, weight, and developmental stage were significantly lower at 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1 relative to control embryos. On day 6, significant reductions in total length, weight, and developmental stage were observed at 104, 208, and 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1. Malformed embryos were found in all Cr (VI) treatments, which were characterized by axial flexures, yolk sac edema and rupture, surface tissue hyperplasia, stunted growth, wavy fin and fin flexure. RT-qPCR results showed that exposure to Cr (VI) down-regulated TRβ and Dio2 mRNA expression and up-regulated Dio3 mRNA level at 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1. The transcript levels of SOD and GPx were upregulated at 52, 208, and 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1, while the transcript level of HSP90 was downregulated at 52, 208, and 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1. Also, mRNA expression of lipid synthesis-related genes (FAE and ACC) were significantly downregulated in embryos treated with 208 and 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1, but mRNA expression of fatty acid β-oxidation-related genes (ACOX, CPT, and SCP) was significantly upregulated at 416 μg Cr⁶⁺ L^-1. Therefore, our results suggested that Cr (VI) could disrupt thyroid endocrine pathways and lipid synthesis, leading to the inhibition of growth and development in B. gargarizans embryos. Furthermore, the decreased ability of scavenging ROS induced by Cr (VI) might be responsible for the teratogenic effects of Cr (VI).

Water Quality Planning in Rivers: Assimilative Capacity and Dilution Flow

Population growth, urbanization and industrial expansion are consequentially linked to increasing pollution around the world. The sources of pollution are so vast and also include point and nonpoint sources, with intrinsic challenge for control and abatement. This paper focuses on pollutant concentrations and also the distance that the pollution is in contact with the river water as objective functions to determine two main necessary characteristics for water quality management in the river. These two necessary characteristics are named assimilative capacity and dilution flow. The mean area of unacceptable concentration [Formula: see text] and affected distance (X) are considered as two objective functions to determine the dilution flow by a non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) optimization algorithm. The results demonstrate that the variation of river flow discharge in different seasons can modify the assimilation capacity up to 97%. Moreover, when using dilution flow as a water quality management tool, results reveal that the content of [Formula: see text] and X change up to 97% and 93%, respectively.

Abatement of toxicity of effluents containing Cr(VI) by heterogeneous photocatalysis. Toxicity assessment by AMPHITOX assay

Toxicity of a Cr(VI) solution before and after treatment by TiO2 heterogeneous photocatalysis (HP) was performed with AMPHITOX bioassay. Changes in toxicity on Rhinella arenarum larvae for 10-d were monitored after exposure to an untreated Cr(VI) solution and to the same solution after HP treatment. The HP treatment of a 41.60 mg L(-1) Cr(VI) solution reduced to 37.5% the concentration of the metal ion. A 10-fold reduction in toxicity at acute exposure (72 h) and 150-fold reduction in toxicity after 240 h was found. Further, the LOEC value increased from 0.001% for the untreated solution to 0.153% after HP treatment. Moreover, the safe concentration in untreated solution corresponded to 0.0001% sample, and it was 0.01% after the treatment, i.e., 100 times higher. A saving of water of about 100,000 L per L of effluent would be possible through dilution to allow safer concentrations for discharge; the saving would reach the highest value (1,000,000 L per L) at 240 h. Sub-lethal effects were completely absent in larvae exposed to the treated solution. The AMPHITOX test allowed to detect chronic effects at low Cr concentrations, i.e. at environmentally relevant levels.

Cr(VI) and azo dye removal using a hollow-fibre membrane system functionalized with a biogenic Pd-magnetite catalyst

This study investigates the application of a hybrid system combining hollow-fibre membrane technology with the reductive abilities of magnetic nanoparticles for the remediation of toxic Cr(VI) and the azo dye, Remazol Black B. Nano-scale biogenic magnetite (Fe3O4), formed by microbial reduction of the mineral ferrihydrite, has a high reductive capacity due to the presence of Fe(II) in the mineral structure. The magnetic nanoparticles (approximately 20 nm) can be arrayed with Pd0 nanoparticles (approximately 5 nm) making a catalytically active nanomaterial. Membrane units, with and without nanoparticles, were challenged with either Cr(VI) or azo dye and some were supplemented with sodium formate, as an electron donor for contaminant reduction promoted by the Pd. The combination of Pd-magnetite with formate resulted in the most effective remediation strategy for both contaminants and the lifetime of the membrane unit was also increased, with 55% (19 days) and 70% (23 days) removal of the azo dye and Cr(VI), respectively. Low flow rates of 0.1 ml/min resulted in improved efficiencies due to increased contact time with the membrane/nanoparticle unit, with 70-75% removal of each contaminant. Chemical analyses of the nanoparticles post-exposure to Cr(VI) in the membrane modules indicated Pd to be more oxidized when Cr removal was maximized, and that the Cr was partially reduced to Cr(III) at the surface of the magnetite. These results have demonstrated that hollow-fibre membrane units can be enhanced for the removal of soluble, redox sensitive contaminants by incorporation of a layer of palladized biogenic nanoparticulate magnetite.

Role of Iron Anode Oxidation on Transformation of Chromium by Electrolysis

The potential for chemical reduction of hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) in contaminated water and formation of a stable precipitate by Zero Valent Iron (ZVI) anode electrolysis is evaluated in separated electrodes system. Oxidation of iron electrodes produces ferrous ions causing the development of a reducing environment in the anolyte, chemical reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and formation of stable iron-chromium precipitates. Cr(VI) transformation rates are dependent on the applied electric current density. Increasing the electric current increases the transformation rates; however, the process is more efficient under lower volumetric current density (for example 1.5 mA L(-1) in this study). The transformation follows a zero order rate that is dependent on the electric current density. Cr(VI) transformation occurs in the anolyte when the electrodes are separated as well as when the electrolytes (anolyte/catholyte) are mixed, as used in electrocoagulation. The study shows that the transformation occurs in the anolyte as a result of ferrous ion formation and the product is a stable Fe(15)Cr(5)(OH)(60) precipitate.

Strategies for chromium bioremediation of tannery effluent

Bioremediation offers the possibility of using living organisms (bacteria, fungi, algae,or plants), but primarily microorganisms, to degrade or remove environmental contaminants, and transform them into nontoxic or less-toxic forms. The major advantages of bioremediation over conventional physicochemical and biological treatment methods include low cost, good efficiency, minimization of chemicals, reduced quantity of secondary sludge, regeneration of cell biomass, and the possibility of recover-ing pollutant metals. Leather industries, which extensively employ chromium compounds in the tanning process, discharge spent-chromium-laden effluent into nearby water bodies. Worldwide, chromium is known to be one of the most common inorganic contaminants of groundwater at pollutant hazardous sites. Hexavalent chromium poses a health risk to all forms of life. Bioremediation of chromium extant in tannery waste involves different strategies that include biosorption, bioaccumulation,bioreduction, and immobilization of biomaterial(s). Biosorption is a nondirected physiochemical interaction that occurs between metal species and the cellular components of biological species. It is metabolism-dependent when living biomass is employed, and metabolism-independent in dead cell biomass. Dead cell biomass is much more effective than living cell biomass at biosorping heavy metals, including chromium. Bioaccumulation is a metabolically active process in living organisms that works through adsorption, intracellular accumulation, and bioprecipitation mechanisms. In bioreduction processes, microorganisms alter the oxidation/reduction state of toxic metals through direct or indirect biological and chemical process(es).Bioreduction of Cr6+ to Cr3+ not only decreases the chromium toxicity to living organisms, but also helps precipitate chromium at a neutral pH for further physical removal,thus offering promise as a bioremediation strategy. However, biosorption, bioaccumulation, and bioreduction methods that rely on free cells for bioremediation suffer from Cr6 toxicity, and cell damage. Therefore, immobilization of microbial cell biomass enhances bioremediation and renders industrial bioremediation processes more economically viable from reduced free-cells toxicity, easier separation of biosorbents from the tannery effluent, ability to achieve multiple biosorption cycles, and desorption (elution) of metal(s) from matrices for reuse. Thus, microbial bioremediation can be a cost competitive strategy and beneficial bioresource for removing many hazardous contaminants from tannery and other industrial wastes.

Optimizing Cr(VI) and Tc(VII) remediation through nanoscale biomineral engineering

The influence of Fe(III) starting material on the ability of magnetically recoverable biogenic magnetites produced by Geobacter sulfurreducens to retain metal oxyanion contaminants has been investigated. The reduction/removal of aqueous Cr(VI) was used to probe the reactivity of the biomagnetites. Nanomagnetites produced by the bacterial reduction of schwertmannite powder were more efficient at reducing Cr(VI) than either ferrihydrite "gel"-derived biomagnetite or commercial nanoscale Fe(3)O(4). Examination of post-exposure magnetite surfaces indicated both Cr(III) and Cr(VI) were present. X-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) studies at the Fe L(2,3)-edge showed that the amount of Fe(III) "gained" by Cr(VI) reduction could not be entirely accounted for by "lost" Fe(II). Cr L(2,3)-edge XMCD spectra found Cr(III) replaced approximately 14%-20% of octahedral Fe in both biogenic magnetites, producing a layer resembling CrFe(2)O(4). However, schwertmannite-derived biomagnetite was associated with approximately twice as much Cr as ferrihydrite-derived magnetite. Column studies using a gamma-camera to image a (99)mTc(VII) radiotracer were performed to visualize the relative performances of biogenic magnetites at removing aqueous metal oxyanion contaminants. Again, schwertmannite-derived biomagnetite proved capable of retaining more (approximately 20%) (99)mTc(VII) than ferrihydrite-derived biomagnetite, confirming that the production of biomagnetite can be fine-tuned for efficient environmental remediation through careful selection of the Fe(III) mineral substrate supplied to Fe(III)-reducing bacteria.

Developmental toxicity, uptake and distribution of sodium chromate assayed by frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Xenopus(FETAX)

The embryotoxicity and teratogenicity of Cr(VI) on the survival and morphology of the anuran Xenopus laevis have been assessed by frog embryo teratogenesis assay-Xenopus (FETAX). The lethal median (LC(50)) and teratogenic median (TC(50)) concentration values of Cr(VI) were 890 microM and 260 microM, respectively. The calculated teratogenic index (TI) value was 3.42, suggesting that hexavalent chromium has a teratogenic potential. Malformations of embryos included lifting of the body, coiling of the tail and body oedema. Furthermore, the chromium salt caused significant growth retardation at 25 microM exposure concentrations. The use of radiolabelled (51)Cr(VI) allowed the determination of the time course uptake of Cr in Xenopus exposed to concentrations ranging from 0.025 to 500 microM. The evaluation of its distribution into the body (head-abdomen-tail) was evaluated at different exposure times. Chromium is taken up at 24 h by Xenopus embryos for all concentrations tested. At 48 h post fertilization (stage of larva) the amount of Cr accumulated by the two-day-old larva ranged from 0.42 to 580 pg mg(-1) wet weight at 0.025 and 500 microM respectively. These amounts were lower than those at 24 h (2.77 to 11016 pg mg(-1) wet weight embryo) reaching values of the same order of magnitude at 120 h (five-days-old larva). Since at 48 h Xenopus development leads to a swimming embryo, the observed uptake at 24 h could be the result of the binding of Cr to jelly coat compounds surrounding the embryo body as confirmed by gel filtration experiments on (51)Cr-jelly coat. The interaction of Cr with jelly coat is in agreement with the role of jelly coat in protecting the embryo against pathogen and chemical toxins to ensure fertilization. This work further supports the hypothesis that Cr contamination of surface waters could contribute to explain the reported worldwide depletion of frog population.

Pathways of aqueous Cr(VI) attenuation in a slightly alkaline oxic subsurface

Column experiments combined with geochemical modeling, microscopic inspections, spectroscopic interrogations, and wet chemical extractions were used to study sediment-dependent Cr(VI) desorption, physical location, mineral association, and attenuation mechanism(s) in four freshly or naturally aged contaminated sediments exposed to concentrated Cr(VI) waste fluids. Results showed that majority of Cr(VI) mass was easily removed from the sediments (equilibrium site K(d) varied from 0 to 0.33 mL g(-1) and equilibrium site fraction was greater than 95%). Long tailings of time-dependent Cr(VI) concentrations above maximum contaminant level of 1.9 micromol L(-1) were also observed (kinetically controlled fraction K(d) and desorption reaction half-lives varied from 0 to 45 mL g(-1), and from 76.1 to 126 h, respectively). Microscopic and spectroscopic measurements confirmed that Cr was concentrated within fine-grained coatings in small areas mainly rich in phyllosilicates that contained both Cr(III) and Cr(VI). However, Cr(VI) reduction was neither significant nor complete. Under slightly alkaline and oxic conditions, contaminant Cr in the sediments occurred: (i) In the highly mobile pool (over 95% of total Cr); (ii) In the slow and time-dependent releasing pool, which served as long-term source of contamination; (iii) As reduced Cr(III) which most likely formed during Cr(VI) reaction with aqueous, sorbed, or structural Fe(II).

Effect of coupled dissolution and redox reactions on Cr(VI)aq attenuation during transport in the sediments under hyperalkaline conditions

Aluminum-rich, hyperalkaline (pH > 13.5) and saline high-level nuclear waste (HLW) fluids at elevated temperatures (>50 degrees C), that possibly contained as much as 0.41 mol L(-1) Cr(VI), accidentally leaked to the sediments at the Hanford Site, WA. These extreme conditions promote base-induced dissolution of soil minerals which may affect Cr(VI)aq mobility. Our objective was to investigate Cr(VI)aq transport in sediments leached with HLW simulants at 50 degrees C, under CO2 and O2 free conditions. Results demonstrated that Cr(VI)aq fate was closely related to dissolution, and Cr(VI)aq mass loss was negligible in the first pore volumes but increased significantly thereafter. Similar to dissolution, Cr(VI)aq attenuation increased with increasing fluid residence time and NaOH concentration but decreased with Al concentrations in the leaching solutions. Aqueous Cr(VI) removal rate half-lives varied from 1.2 to 230 h with the fastest at the highest base concentration, lowest Al concentration, greatest reaction time, and lowest Cr(VI) concentration in the leaching solution. The rate of Cr(VI) removal (normalized to 1 kg of solution) varied from 0.83 x 10(-9) (+/-0.44 x 10(-9)) to 9.16 x 10(-9) (+/-1.10 x 10(-9)) mol s(-1). The predominant mechanism responsible for removing Cr(VI) from the aqueous phase appears to be homogeneous Cr(VI) reduction to Cr(III) by Fe(II) released during mineral dissolution. Cr(VI)aq removal was time-limited probably because it was controlled by the rate of Fe(II) release into the soil solution upon mineral dissolution, which was also a time-limited process, and other processes that may act to lower Fe(II)aq activity.

Iron promoted reduction of chromate by dissimilatory iron-reducing bacteria

Chromate is a priority pollutant within the U.S. and many other countries, the hazard of which can be mitigated by reduction to the trivalent form of chromium. Here we elucidate the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) via a closely coupled, biotic-abiotic reductive pathway under iron-reducing conditions. Injection of chromate into stirred-flow reactors containing Shewanella alga strain BrY and iron (hydr)oxides of varying stabilities results in complete reduction to Cr(III). The maximum sustainable Cr(VI) reduction rate was 5.5 micrograms CrVI.mg-cell-1.h-1 within ferric (hydr)oxide suspensions (surface area 10 m2). In iron limited systems (having HEPES as a buffer), iron was cycled suggesting it acts in a catalytic-type manner for the bacterial reduction of Cr(VI). BrY also reduced Cr(VI) directly; however, the rate of direct (enzymatic) reduction is considerably slower than by Fe(II)(aq) and is inhibited within 20 h due to chromate toxicity. Thus, dissimilatory iron reduction may provide a primary pathway for the sequestration and detoxification of chromate in anaerobic soils and water.