Family composition preferences in a developing culture: The case of Taiwan, 1973

The impact of culture perception on kinship disconnection of Chinese youth: examining the chain mediating effect of kinship support, kinship burnout, and social media interaction

Kinship connections are an essential foundation of social relationships in China, yet in recent years there has been an increasing tendency toward kinship disconnection (Duanqin) among Chinese youth. In this study, based on online survey data of 555 Chinese individuals aged 18-35 years under a comprehensive explanatory framework of culturalism, functionalism, and behaviorism, regression and mediation analyses found that (1) cultural perception based on family-state values is the dominant factor influencing people's tendency to disconnect. (2) Kinship support decreases people's propensity to break off relatives, while kinship burnout increases people's propensity to cut off relatives. Both act as functionalist factors in the chain that mediates the effect of cultural perception on the propensity to break kinship, and kinship burnout obscures the effect of kinship support and becomes a differentiating variable. (3) Both social media kin interaction size and kin group activity significantly reduce people's propensity to disconnect. However, group activities are more significant in cultural perception's mediating effect on disconnection propensity. It indicates that truly "active" social media connections are more important. The study attempts to propose a framework of "cultural perception + functional satisfaction and burnout + social media" to interpret Chinese youth kinship communication activity. On a practical level, more support for young people in social media interactions could slow or even reverse the trend of disconnection.

Individual and family preferences of job qualities matter: association between face needs, locked-in job status, and burnout among high-tech workers in Taiwan

Background

Studies on the health impacts of being locked in a job are primarily conducted in Western countries, with the theory based on the value of individualism. But the socially-oriented concerns should be considered in workers’ locked-in status in Chinese society. So the current study aims at evaluating socially-oriented concerns on workers’ locked-in status in Taiwan.

Methods

Anonymous surveys were conducted with 1102 workers at high-tech companies in Taiwan from October 2015 to January 2016 to assess their “face” needs-- a sociological concept linked to the dignity, prestige, and reputation that a person has in terms of their social relationships, locked-in status of the job, and burnout. In addition to being separated into three groups by lock-in score, participants were categorized by the conflict of preference of the job between themselves and their family. Chi-square, ANOVA, Pearson correlation, and regression tests were conducted.

Results

Among the 1102 participants, 18% had jobs that they did not prefer but their family preferred. Participants with higher face needs and higher locked-in status had a significantly higher risk of developing personal and work-related burnout. However, the analysis using “locked-in job conflict of preference between themselves and their family” showed a more coherent result. Participants with a job which “self does not prefer but family do” had twice the risk of having personal and work-related burnout (OR = 2.03 and 2.34, respectively). Participants with a job which neither themselves nor their family prefer had four times the risk of having personal and work-related burnout (OR = 4.10 and 4.17, respectively).

Conclusions

The current study suggests an importance in considering a socially-oriented job preference in locked-in status evaluations within the Chinese culture. Workers’ whose locked-in status preference conflicted with their family’s preference showed a significantly negative impact on their health.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-11269-8.

Explaining religious differentials in family-size preference: Evidence from Nepal in 1996

We examine how religio-ethnic identity, individual religiosity, and family members' religiosity were related to preferred family size in Nepal in 1996. Analyses of survey data from the Chitwan Valley Family Study show that socio-economic characteristics and individual experiences can suppress, as well as largely account for, religio-ethnic differences in fertility preference. These religio-ethnic differentials are associated with variance in particularized theologies or general value orientations (like son preference) across groups. In addition, individual and family religiosity are both positively associated with preferred family size, seemingly because of their association with religious beliefs—beliefs that are likely to shape fertility strategies. These findings suggest the need for improvements in how we conceptualize and measure supra-individual religious influence in a variety of settings and for a range of demographically interesting outcomes.

The magnitude of changes in linear growth within Taiwanese families: intrinsic sex-associated biology, socially mediated behaviors, or both?

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluates competing hypotheses about implications of greater female growth canalization for differences in male and female growth as developmental settings improve.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Intergenerational declines in gender bias and rapid economic growth in Taiwan permit assessment of the two hypotheses using anthropometric and background information from 107 Taiwanese parents and their young adult offspring. Differences in parents' values were first evaluated across grandfathers' occupational status categories reflecting good to relatively poor early circumstances in the parental generation. The extent of intergenerational change in heights or knee heights within 56 father-son pairs were then compared with those in 51 statistically independent mother-daughter pairs across the same occupational categories using repeated measures analyses.

RESULTS

Change in mean heights and knee heights across grandfathers' occupational categories were noticeably greater for fathers than mothers. Overall, intergenerational gains within families in height and knee height were statistically significant (p < 0.0005) in father-son (3.89 cm; 1.85 cm) and mother-daughter pairs (4.14 cm; 1.67 cm). However, among families where grandfather's occupations were "privileged," father-son pairs are similar in average height (Δ = -0.36 cm) and knee height (Δ = 0.53 cm) while mothers were significantly shorter (Δ = 3.88 cm) with shorter knee heights (Δ = 1.74 cm) than their daughters.

DISCUSSION

The hypothesis that females are inherently less capable of responding to growth promoting characteristics of early environments is not supported. Intergenerational declines in male preference combined with rapid but equitable economic growth better account for intergenerational changes reported.

The maintaining and improving effect of grandchild care provision on elders' mental health-Evidence from longitudinal study in Taiwan

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to determine the impact of grandchild care provision on elders' mental health by self-comparison and longitudinal study design.

METHOD

Information of 2930 grandparents from the Study of Health and Living Status of the Middle-Aged and Elderly in Taiwan were analysed. Elders' mental health was evaluated by Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in both 2003 and 2007. Participants were divided into 4 groups based on their changing behaviour of caring for grandchildren from 2003 to 2007. Chi-square test was used to compare changes in elders' individual characteristics and total CESD scores between and within groups. ANOVA was used to compare the means of elders' depressive symptoms between groups while paired-t test was used to compare changes in elders' depression symptoms from 2003 to 2007. Logistic regression was performed to determine the associations between elders' changing behaviour of caring for grandchildren and changes in depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Elders continuously caring for grandchildren or started to take care of grandchildren significantly felt happier and enjoyed life more than before and more than elders who do not provide grandchild care. Logistic regression analyses exploring the impact of grandchild care provision found that elders provided no grandchild care had worst mental health amongst all. Elders stopped providing grandchild care had significantly higher risk of developing depressive symptoms (OR=1.40) than elders provided no grandchild care at all time.

DISCUSSION

By self-comparison, this study illustrates how taking care of grandchildren maintains elders' mental health, especially against them from loneliness and depression.

The protective effect of taking care of grandchildren on elders' mental health? Associations between changing patterns of intergenerational exchanges and the reduction of elders' loneliness and depression between 1993 and 2007 in Taiwan

Background

The 20th century’s rapid industrialization and urbanization brought important social changes to Taiwan, including an increased number of elders living alone, which has increased risk of depression for the elderly. This study aimed to evaluate the changing pattern regarding the effect of intergenerational exchanges on elders’ depressive symptoms from 1993 to 2007.

Methods

Data from the second-, fourth- and sixth-wave surveys of the Study of Health and Living Status of the Middle-Aged and Elderly in Taiwan were analyzed. This study collected elders’ individual sociodemographic characteristics, their self-reported health status and their intergenerational exchanges, including living with partners or with their children and their provision of care for their grandchildren. Information about elders’ depression was evaluated using the 5-item Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D).

Changes in elders’ intergenerational exchanges and depressive symptoms were compared during these study periods (chi-square test). Then, logistic regression was performed to determine how significantly elders’ intergenerational exchanges were associated with their depressive symptoms across the three years 1993, 1999 and 2007.

Results

The prevalence of elders living with partners decreased from 1993 to 2007 by 19%, and that of living with their children decreased from 1993 to 2007 by 7%. Conversely, the percentage of elders providing care for grandchildren dramatically increased, from 9% in 1993 to 21% in 2007. Elderly people had significantly fewer depressive symptoms in 2007 than in 1993.

After adjusting for confounders, those living without a partner, living without children or providing no grandchild care had a greater risk of feeling lonely and being depressed. However, during the period 1993 to 2007, the impact on elders’ depression and loneliness of co-residing with a partner or with children decreased at the same time that the impact of their provision of grandchild care increased. In 2007, elders who provided no grandchild care were significantly more likely to feel lonely and sad as well as to have high CES-D scores; these strong associations were not found in 1993 and 1999.

Conclusions

This study illustrates how taking care of grandchildren protects against depression and loneliness in elderly Taiwanese. We argue the need, in an aging society, for improving intergenerational interaction and recommend careful evaluation of the interaction between population policies and those of social welfare, such as child care.

The sociocultural context of family size preference, ideal sex composition, and induced abortion in India: findings from India's National Family Health surveys

In this study, the author examined the effect of family size preference and sex composition of living children as determinants of induced abortion among women in India by analyzing 90,303 ever-married women aged 15-49, included in India's second National Family Health Survey, conducted in 1998-99. Multivariate logistic regression methods were used to examine the association between induced abortion and possible determinants. The results indicated that a woman's desire to limit family size with preferred sex composition of children, coupled with her autonomy and the sociocultural context, largely determines her experience of induced abortion in India.

Evolution in intergenerational exchanges between elderly people and their grandchildren in Taiwan; data from a multiple round cross-sectional study from 1993 to 2007

Background

This study aimed to evaluate social evolution in Taiwan in recent decades using the changing pattern of care provided by grandparents for their grandchildren as an indicator.

Methods

Data from the second, fourth and sixth wave surveys of the Study of Health and Living Status of the Middle-Aged and Elderly in Taiwan were used for the analysis. This survey collected individual characteristics, including age, gender, education, ethnicity, dwelling place, living with partners, co-resident with children, employment status, self-reported health status and their provision of care for their grandchildren. Information about the attitudes toward National Health Insurance (NHI) was further collected in a questionnaire of 1999 following the implementation of NHI in 1995. By elders, we mean persons 60 or more years old. By grandchildren, we mean persons under 16 years of age. First, changes in individual characteristics were compared during these study periods (chi-square test). Then the logistic regression was performed to determine how significantly elders' grandchild-care behavior was associated with their individual characteristics.

Results

The percentage of elders providing grandchild care increased from 7.7% in 1993 to 13.6% in 1999, and then to 19.4% in 2007. By analysis, significant association was found between behavior in taking care of grandchildren and individuals of lower age, grandmothers, those living with partners or co-residing with children, those unemployed and those with better self-reported health status. And the effect of year was confirmed in the multivariable analysis.

Conclusions

This study pointed out the changing pattern of elders' behavior in taking care of their grandchildren as the main indicator and their related individual characteristics. We argue the need for improving social security policies in an ageing society. We suggest that the interaction between population policies and those of social welfare, including policies for health care and childcare, should be carefully evaluated.

Son preference and sex composition of children: Evidence from india

Although the effect of son preference on sex composition of children ever born is undetectable in national-level estimates that aggregate across all families, this article provides empirical evidence from India that son preference has two pronounced and predictable family-level effects on the sex composition of children ever born. First, data from India show that smaller families have a significantly higher proportion of sons than larger families. Second, socially and economically disadvantaged couples and couples from the northern region of India not only want but also attain a higher proportion of sons, if the effects of family size are controlled.

Significance of beliefs and values in predicting fertility and contraceptive behaviour in Pakistan

A comparative study of 1100 women aged 25-45 years, users and non-users of modern methods of contraception, in the urban centres of Lahore and Faisalabad was conducted in 1991. The objective of the study was to investigate reproductive behaviour and the extent to which social, cultural and attitudinal variables, such as beliefs and values about family life, religiosity and fatalism, influence the fertility decision-making process. Preferences for smaller families were found to be consistently associated with modern attitudes and behaviour towards family and religious values and obligations. Family income, husband's occupation and religiosity offered no explanation of reproductive behaviour. It is concluded that cultural setting and tradition exert an important influence on reproductive behaviour, independent of economic development.

Gender preference and birth spacing in matlab, Bangladesh

Gender preference, particularly son preference, is believed to sustain high fertility in many Asian countries, but previous research shows unclear effects. We examine and compare gender-preference effects on fertility in two otherwise comparable populations in Bangladesh that differ markedly in their access to and use of contraception. We expect, and find, stronger effects of gender preference in the population that has more access to contraception and higher levels of contraceptive use. Thus gender preference may emerge as a significant barrier to further national family planning efforts in Bangladesh. We find that if a woman has at least one daughter, the risk of a subsequent birth is related negatively to the number of sons. Women with no daughters also experience a higher risk of having a subsequent birth; this finding suggests that there is also some preference for daughters. Son preference is strong in both the early and later stages of family formation, but women also want to have at least one daughter after having several sons.

Influence of son preference on the contraceptive use and fertility of Sri Lankan women

The effect of moderate son preference on family size is analysed using data from the 1982 Sri Lanka Contraceptive Prevalence Survey whose respondents were followed-up in the 1985 Sri Lanka Contraceptive Survey. Reported reproductive intentions on desire for additional children were not always reflected in overall contraceptive use. Complicating factors were the use of modern and traditional methods and the role of induced abortion. Longitudinal observations of the 1982-85 period relating women's individual reproductive behaviour to their intentions show no consistent behavioural difference between those with and without sons. However, at any given parity, the proportion reporting at least one additional child born during the intersurvey period was higher among those women who intended to have at least one additional child than among those who wanted to stop childbearing. This analysis suggests that son preference finds expression more through reproductive intentions than through actual fertility behaviour in the follow-up period.

Female Employment and Reproductive Behavior in Taiwan, 1980

The impact of female employment on fertility preferences and behavior is examined with data from a 1980national sample of Taiwanese women. The guiding hypothesis is that the greater the involvement of women in the impersonal market sector, the lower the fertility preferences, the longer the first birth interval, and the lower the actual fertility. Findings reveal that female employment in Taiwan is only weakly related to reproductive behavior. Even with increased participation of women in the modern market sector, female employment apparently has little impact on fertility preferences or behavior. Implications are drawn for policies aimed at lowering fertility.

Determining the impact of sex preferences on fertility: A consideration of parity progression ratio, dominance, and stopping rule measures

The two methods commonly used to assess the effect of sex preferences on fertility are inadequate to the task. Parity progression ratio analyses suffer from logical problems stemming from the heterogeneity of sex preferences and the riskiness of fertility decisions. While conjoint measurement-dominance procedures overcome these logical problems, they cannot yield quantitative estimates of the impact of sex preferences on fertility. A stopping rule measure which overcomes these limitations is proposed and described and its potential for determining the effect of sex predetermination methods on population is discussed.

Some roots of preference: Roles, activities and familial values

This paper examines some of the connecting links between modernization in a developing society, particularly urbanization and increased education for women, and preferences for number of children. Using 1973 Taiwan data, preferences for smaller families are found to be consistently related to modern attitudes and behavior in the three domains examined: intrafamilial husband-wife role relationships, extrafamilial activities of the wife, and familial and religious values relating the family to the larger institutional setting. Modernization of these attitudes, behaviors, and values has an impact on reproductive goals independent of their association with structural variables. The wife’s outside activities and exposure to modern influences through the mass media are especially important linkages, having a particularly strong mediating effect in the education effect on preferences. Intrafamilial relations appear to be of less importance. Modernization of familial and religious values mediates between urbanization and family size preferences. The measure of preference used is a scale value which has been found in other research to be more predictive of reproductive behavior than the conventional single-valued statement of number of children wanted. As the level of contraceptive use rises in developing societies, family size preferences increasingly become a factor in birth rates, and understanding the sources of change in these preferences takes on added importance. The policy implications of these findings are discussed.