Flexibility

Effects of an integrative warm-up method on the range of motion, core stability, and quality of squat performance of young adults

Introduction

This research aims to determine the effects of an integrative warm-up method on the range of motion in joints of the lower extremities, the strength of the stabilizer trunk muscles, and the quality of the basic movement patterns in older adolescents.

Methods

The study sample consisted of 88 male students (age 20.1 ± 0.5). They were randomly divided into four groups: one control group (CG) (n = 17; 180.8 ± 7.9 cm; 82.3 ± 8.3 kg) and three experimental groups (EG): EG1 (n = 23; 180.9 ± 7.0 cm; 78.5 ± 9.5 kg), EG2 (n = 31; 182.2 cm ± 7.3 cm; 79.5 ± 11.5 kg), and EG3 (n = 17; 183.3 ± 4.9 cm; 77.5 ± 11.8 kg). The participants were subjected to a 6-week experimental treatment: EG1 once, EG2 twice, and EG3 three times a week. The experimental treatment consisted of four sub-phases representing the integrative warm-up Method: 1) Inhibition (self-myofascial release using a foam roller); 2) Lengthening (Static stretching in a maximum range of motion position); 3) Activation (Positional isometrics muscle activation of the trunk and gluteus); 4) Integration (Integrated all the previous phases into one complex movement pattern). Based on the covariance analysis (ANCOVA), statistically significant treatment effects were observed and positive changes were determined in all experimental groups.

Results

The differences between groups were observed in the following variables: Overhead Squat Assessment (p = 0.000; η p 2 = 0.318 ), range of motion of left hip flexion (p = 0.000; η p 2 = 0.371 ), range of motion of right hip flexion (p = 0.000; η p 2 = 0.051 ) and range of motion of right hip extension (p = 0.051; η p 2 = 0.088 ), Double Leg Lowering Test (F = 2.411; p = 0.014; η p 2 = 0.014 ) and range of combined motion (plantar and dorsiflexion) of left ankle joint (p = 0.000; η p 2 = 0.299 ). There was no significant difference in the Plank Test (F = 1.007; p = 1.007; η p 2 = 0.035 ), range of combined motion (plantar and dorsiflexion) of right ankle joint (p = 0.088; η p 2 = 0.170 ) and range of motion of left hip extension (p = 0.158; η p 2 = 0.060 ). The participants of CG statistically significantly differed from EG1, EG2, and EG3 in the squat performance after the applied treatment.

Discussion

The effect of the treatment was the occurrence of a transformational processes in almost all measured variables. It can be concluded that the integrative method is effective and applicable in practice for both young adults and recreational athletes.

Four-Year Training Course for Police Officers (CFOP) and Fitness Outcomes of Police Academy Cadets: A Cohort Study from 2004 to 2020

This study examines the effect of gender, age, and a 4-year training course for police officers (CFOP) on the physical fitness attributes of Portuguese police academy cadets. This longitudinal cohort study considered 686 police cadets (female, n = 131; male, n = 555 male), corresponding to 2578 fitness assessments (female, n = 509; male, n = 2069). The database of police cadets' physical fitness evaluations (from 2004/2005 to 2019/2020) comprises body size, speed, agility, strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity first assessment (T0) and evaluations at the end of the first four years of the CFOP (T1, T2, T3, T4). Results showed that (i) female cadets are younger (p < 0.05), shorter, lighter, less fast, less agile, less strong, and perform worse in aerobic capacity assessments than male cadets (all, p < 0.001) but perform better in the flexibility assessment (p < 0.001); (ii) female cadets > 29 years are significantly heavier, slower, jump less, perform fewer sit-ups, and perform less on the Cooper test (but they have more handgrip strength), and male cadets > 29 years are significantly heavier, slower, jump less, perform fewer sit-ups, and have less flexibility and aerobic capacity (still, they have superior back and lumbar strength and handgrip strength); and (iii) from T0 to T4 (Δ), female cadets are significantly faster (60 m, -0.32 s; slalom, -0.78 s), jump further (+4 cm), have more abdominal strength endurance (+2.6 repetitions) and more back and lumbar strength (+89.8 kg), and male cadets are significantly heavier (+3.27 kg), faster (60 m, -0.23 s; 30 m, -0.15 s; slalom, -0.91 s), jump further (+8 cm), complete more repetitions in the sit-ups (+4.9 repetitions) and in pull-ups (+2.5 repetitions) and have more back and lumbar strength (+92.1 kg) and handgrip strength (+8.6 kg) but a lower aerobic capacity (Cooper test, -74.8 m; VO2max, -1.3 mL/kg/min) when compared to T0. The study's findings lead to widely accepted conclusions within the discipline. Nevertheless, this work provides valuable insights into the impact of various factors on the physical fitness of Portuguese police academy cadets, i.e.: (i) it is an essential study with practical implications for recruitment, training, and the ongoing development of Portuguese police academy cadets and police officers; and (ii) these results can also assist in tailoring training programs to different age groups and genders, which is crucial in police training.

Scoping review on health-related physical fitness in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: Assessment, interventions, and future directions

BACKGROUND

Reaching the Selecting Therapeutic Targets in Inflammatory Bowel Disease-II (STRIDE-II) therapeutic targets for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) requires an interdisciplinary approach. Lifestyle interventions focusing on enhancing and preserving health-related physical fitness (HRPF) may aid in improving subjective health, decreasing disability, or even controlling inflammation. However, ambiguity remains about the status and impact of HRPF (i.e. body composition, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility) in IBD patients, hindering the development of physical activity and physical exercise training guidelines.

AIM

To review HRPF components in IBD patients and the impact of physical activity and physical exercise training interventions on HRPF.

METHODS

A systematic search in multiple databases was conducted for original studies that included patients with IBD, assessed one or more HRPF components, and/or evaluated physical activity or physical exercise training interventions.

RESULTS

Sixty-eight articles were included. No study examined the complete concept of HRPF, and considerable heterogeneity existed in assessment methods, with frequent use of non-validated tests. According to studies that used gold standard tests, cardiorespiratory fitness seemed to be reduced, but findings on muscular strength and endurance were inconsistent. A limited number of studies that evaluated physical activity or physical exercise training interventions reported effects on HRPF, overall showing a positive impact.

CONCLUSION

We performed a scoping review using a systematic and iterative approach to identify and synthesize an emerging body of literature on health-related physical fitness in patients with IBD, highlighting several research gaps and opportunities for future research. Findings of this review revealed a gap in the literature regarding the accurate assessment of HRPF in patients with IBD and highlighted important methodological limitations of studies that evaluated physical activity or physical exercise training interventions. This scoping review is a step towards performing studies and systematic reviews in the future, which was not possible at present given the heterogeneity in endpoints and designs of the available studies on this topic. Future well-designed studies are required to determine the optimal training paradigm for improving HRPF in patients with IBD before guidelines can be developed and integrated into the therapeutic strategy.

Effectiveness of an adapted physical activity intervention on health-related physical fitness in adolescents with intellectual disability: a randomized controlled trial

This study aimed to examine the effects of an adapted physical activity (APA) intervention on health-related physical fitness (HRPF) in adolescents with intellectual disability (ID). With a randomized controlled trial design, adolescents aged 12-18 years, with mild and moderate ID, and being overweight and obese were recruited and randomly assigned to either an intervention or a control group. The APA intervention consisted of overall moderate intensity aerobic and resistance exercise, with a duration of 45 min/session, a frequency of 2 sessions/week, and lasting for 9 months. A negative control was involved, in which participants received no treatment. Changes in four fitness tests, including the 9-min run/walk, handgrip strength, 30-s sit-ups, and sit-and-reach tests, were assessed between the groups using general linear models. A total of 57 participants (39 in the intervention group and 18 in the control group) completed the study. Significant mean differences in changes in the 9-min run/walk test (413.6 m [95% CI 146.72 m, 680.41 m], p = 0.003) and the right-side sit-and-reach test (2.2 cm [95% CI 0.37 cm, 4.09 cm], p = 0.020) respectively were observed in the intervention group, compared to the control group. No significant between-group improvement was observed for the handgrip strength and the 30-s sit-ups tests. The APA intervention induced beneficial effects on cardiorespiratory fitness and potential beneficial effects on flexibility for adolescents with ID. However, no significant effects of this intervention on muscular strength and endurance were observed in this study. Future studies should consider involving effective exercises in interventions to improve muscular strength and endurance.

Is There a "Window of Opportunity" for Flexibility Development in Youth? A Systematic Review with Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Flexibility is an important component of physical fitness for competitive and recreational athletes. It is generally suggested that flexibility training should start from childhood (6-11 years of age) to optimize joint range of motion (ROM) increases; however, evidence is limited and inconsistent.

OBJECTIVE

To examine whether there is a difference in the effect of stretching training on flexibility during childhood (6-11 years of age) and adolescence (12-18 years of age).

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

METHODS

We searched PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, Embase, and SPORTDiscus, to conduct this systematic review. Randomized controlled trials and non-randomized controlled trials were eligible. No language and date of publication restrictions were applied. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Meta-analyses were conducted via an inverse variance random-effects model. GRADE analysis was used to assess the methodological quality of the studies.

RESULTS

From the 2713 records retrieved 28 studies were included in the meta-analysis (n = 1936 participants). Risk of bias was low in 56.9% of all criteria. Confidence in cumulative evidence was moderate. We found that stretching was effective in increasing ROM in both children (SMD = 1.09; 95% CI = 0.77-1.41; Z = 6.65; p < 0.001; I² = 79%) and adolescents (SMD = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.70-1.10; Z = 8.88; p < 0.001; I² = 81%), with no differences between children and adolescents in ROM improvements (p = 0.32; I² = 0%). However, when stretching volume load was considered, children exhibited greater increases in ROM with higher than lower stretching volumes (SMD = 1.21; 95% CI = 0.82-1.60; Z = 6.09; p < 0.001; I² = 82% and SMD = 0.62; 95% CI = 0.29-0.95; Z = 3.65; p < 0.001; I² = 0%, respectively; subgroup difference: p = 0.02; I² = 80.5%), while adolescents responded equally to higher and lower stretching volume loads (SMD = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.47-1.33; Z = 4.08; p < 0.001; I² = 83%, and SMD = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.69-1.12; Z = 8.18; p < 0.001; I² = 79%, respectively; subgroup difference: p = 0.98; I² = 0%).

CONCLUSIONS

Systematic stretching training increases ROM during both childhood and adolescence. However, larger ROM gains may be induced in childhood than in adolescence when higher stretching volume loads are applied, while adolescents respond equally to high and low stretching volume loads.

REGISTRATION

INPLASY, registration number: INPLASY202190032; https://inplasy.com/inplasy-2021-9-0032/.

Health-Related Physical Fitness and Activity in Homeschool: A Systematic Review With Implications for Return to Public School

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this systematic review is to summarize what is known about health-related physical fitness (cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition) and physical activity among homeschool youth. Findings from this study have implications for all American youth as they return to public school from mandated schooling at home during the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

Database engines identified over 22,000 articles with 82 abstracts screened for further review. Of these, 18 full-text articles were additionally screened with 10 cross-sectional articles included in the final review. Articles were condensed into a standard review template and findings were summarized by topic.

RESULTS

Cardiovascular endurance findings were inconsistent. Abdominal, but not upper body, muscular strength and endurance were significantly lower in homeschool students. There were no reports on flexibility. Body composition was generally healthy in homeschool students and no differences in physical activity were seen.

CONCLUSIONS

Research on health-related physical fitness in homeschool youth is limited and descriptive. Further testing and potential remediation may be needed for cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility in homeschool youth and their public school counterparts as they return to campus. However, existing literature supports healthy body composition and physical activity in this population.

The Case for Retiring Flexibility as a Major Component of Physical Fitness

Flexibility refers to the intrinsic properties of body tissues that determine maximal joint range of motion without causing injury. For many years, flexibility has been classified by the American College of Sports Medicine as a major component of physical fitness. The notion flexibility is important for fitness has also led to the idea static stretching should be prescribed to improve flexibility. The current paper proposes flexibility be retired as a major component of physical fitness, and consequently, stretching be de-emphasized as a standard component of exercise prescriptions for most populations. First, I show flexibility has little predictive or concurrent validity with health and performance outcomes (e.g., mortality, falls, occupational performance) in apparently healthy individuals, particularly when viewed in light of the other major components of fitness (i.e., body composition, cardiovascular endurance, muscle endurance, muscle strength). Second, I explain that if flexibility requires improvement, this does not necessitate a prescription of stretching in most populations. Flexibility can be maintained or improved by exercise modalities that cause more robust health benefits than stretching (e.g., resistance training). Retirement of flexibility as a major component of physical fitness will simplify fitness batteries; save time and resources dedicated to flexibility instruction, measurement, and evaluation; and prevent erroneous conclusions about fitness status when interpreting flexibility scores. De-emphasis of stretching in exercise prescriptions will ensure stretching does not negatively impact other exercise and does not take away from time that could be allocated to training activities that have more robust health and performance benefits.

The Association between Physical Fitness Performance and Subjective Happiness among Taiwanese Adults

The purpose of the present study was to determine the association between health-related physical fitness (HRPF) performance and perceived happiness status among adults in Taiwan. A cross-sectional study was conducted, and data derived from the National Physical Fitness Survey in Taiwan 2014–2015 were reviewed. The participants included 27,930 men and 30,885 women, aged 23 to 64 years. Each participant completed a standardized, structured questionnaire and underwent anthropometric variable and HRPF measurements. The happiness outcome of an individual was obtained using the questionnaire, and the results were stratified into happy (very happy, quite happy, and fair) and unhappy (unhappy and not at all happy) groups for perceived happiness status. HRPF measurements were evaluated using cardiorespiratory endurance (3 min step test), muscle strength and endurance (1 min sit-up test), flexibility (sit-and-reach test), and body composition (body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio). To determine the existence of a dose–response relationship between HRPF component levels and happiness status, four quartiles of HRPF components were analyzed using multiple logistic regression models. Multiple logistic regression results indicated that with the worst performance level of HRPF components as a baseline, significant associations were observed for the sit-and-reach test (third level: OR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.02–1.49) and BMI (second level: OR = 0.78, 95% CI: 0.64–0.95) among men. For women, significant associations were observed for the 1 min sit-up test (second level: OR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.03–1.60; third level: OR = 1.32, 95% CI: 1.04–1.67; fourth (the best) level: OR = 1.48, 95% CI: 1.12–1.95) and BMI (third level: OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.58–0.92). The current study suggested that higher values in flexibility and body composition, happiness-related factors, potentially improve the occurrence of happiness among men. Moreover, this positive effect of higher values of muscle strength, endurance, and BMI was observed for the occurrence of happiness in women. However, the relevant mechanism underlying this phenomenon must be further explored.

The Federated Practice of Soccer Influences Hamstring Flexibility in Healthy Adolescents: Role of Age and Weight Status

The aim of this study was to compare the hamstring flexibility between federated soccer and non-federated adolescents, and also to evaluate the effect of age and weight status on hamstring flexibility. The participants were 234 students (11–18 years old) divided into: (i) G1: non-federated (n = 127), and (ii) G2: federated in soccer (n = 107). The deep flexion of the trunk (DF) test and the sit and reach test (SRT) were performed. G2 showed higher values for the DF and SRT compared to G1 (p < 0.05). Both flexibility tests correlated positively (r = 0.4, p < 0.001). Body mass index (BMI) was negatively correlated with the DF test (r = −0.3, p < 0.001), but not with the SRT. Divided by BMI, the underweight and normal weight groups had higher scores in the DF test compared with the overweight and obese groups (p < 0.001). BMI was negatively correlated with hamstring flexibility. Federated soccer students present higher scores of hamstring flexibility.

Sit and Reach Flexibility Measures for Boys and Girls Aged Three through Eight Years

The differences in sit and reach flexibility scores among boys and girls aged 3 through 8 yr. were investigated. Analysis indicated that the sit and reach flexibility test was a reliable measure across trials and sessions for the 300 subjects. Analysis of variance indicated the 3- to 4-yr.-old subjects were significantly more flexible than subjects aged 5 to 8 yr. Also, girls were significantly more flexible than boys across the three age groups. These findings remained significant even when leg/torso and arm/torso ratios served as covariates.

The Effect of Foam Rolling Duration on Hamstring Range of Motion

Musculoskeletal health benefits from flexibility training and maintaining a functional, or sport specific, range of motion is important to one's overall fitness. Commercial foam rollers are commonly used in gyms, therapy clinics and homes, yet data are lacking on the optimal rolling duration and effect on range of motion.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of varied durations of a commercial foam roller treatment on hamstring range of motion.

METHODS

The knee extension range of motion of 33 college aged men and women (age= 20±1.5y, mass= 72.2±10.8 kg) was assessed after a short (2 sets of 10s) and long (4 sets of 30s) duration of hamstring self-administered myofascial release using a commercial foam roller. A one way ANOVA was performed to compare the mean knee extension angle for each condition to baseline measures.

RESULTS

Results indicated that neither the short duration (67.30 ± 10.60 deg) nor long duration (67.41 ± 10.81 deg) rolling condition produced significant increases in knee extension compared to baseline (67.70 ± 9.90 deg).

CONCLUSION

Self-administered foam rolling for a total duration of up to 2 minutes is not adequate to induce improvements in knee joint flexibility. Contributing factors may include the amount of pressure imparted by the commercial roller as well as duration of treatment.

Flexiteste: utilização inapropriada de versões condensadas

FUNDAMENTOS E OBJETIVO: A flexibilidade, definida como a mobilidade passiva máxima de um dado movimento articular, é uma das variáveis da aptidão física relacionadas à saúde e representa um fator fundamental para o desempenho do corpo e do movimento, seja em modalidades desportivas ou cênicas, em que a graciosidade e a beleza dos movimentos seja relevante. Dentre os vários métodos de medida e avaliação da flexibilidade, um dos mais utilizados é o Flexiteste, incluindo 20 movimentos articulares graduados de 0 a 4 pontos. Contudo, alguns profissionais têm utilizado versões condensadas de apenas quatro ou seis movimentos empiricamente escolhidos. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar a validade científica e prática do uso de versões condensadas em substituição à versão completa do Flexiteste. MÉTODOS: Foram utilizados dados do Flexiteste de 3.116 indivíduos, 1.847 homens e 1.269 mulheres, entre cinco e 88 anos de idade. A partir de análises de regressão progressivas passo a passo, foram escolhidos os quatro e seis movimentos que melhor estimavam o Flexíndice (soma dos escores dos 20 movimentos), separadamente, para crianças e adolescentes, adultos jovens, adultos e adultos idosos dos dois gêneros. RESULTADOS: Apesar dos altos coeficientes de determinação obtidos nas regressões, ligeiramente melhores para seis movimentos, os erros-padrão das estimativas situaram-se entre 2,7 e 3,8 pontos (3,8 e 3,9, respectivamente, para homens e mulheres, sem divisão por grupo etário), excedendo o que se deve esperar como erro de medida e sendo semelhante ao que se observa como resultado de um programa de treinamento específico. CONCLUSÃO: Exceto em circunstâncias muito específicas e raras, não é apropriado o uso de versões condensadas de quatro ou seis movimentos do Flexiteste, mesmo que específicos por faixa etária e gênero.

A 2 week routine stretching programme did not prevent contraction-induced injury in mouse muscle

Most athletes stretch as part of their training regimen and it is commonly believed that this practice prevents muscle injury. We tested this belief using an animal model, in situ mouse extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscle. One lower hindlimb was slowly stretched for 1 min on alternate days for 12 days; the other leg served as a control. The mouse was lightly anaesthetized during the stretching protocol (isofluorane). Both legs were tested in situ by measuring maximum isometric force and maximum work before and after an eccentric contraction that was designed to cause a contraction-induced injury. The difference between a contraction before and after (i.e. the deficit) was used as a measure of damage caused by the eccentric contraction. There was a threshold for force deficit at a peak to peak eccentric excursion amplitude of 19.5 % (i.e. L(o) +/- 9.75 %, where L(o) is muscle length at peak isometric force). There was a significant increase in force deficit, work deficit, and curve shift with an increase in eccentric excursion amplitude above the threshold. There was no statistical difference in the force deficit, work deficit, or curve shift between the stretched leg and the control leg (P > 0.05). A routine stretching programme, at least at the intensities employed in this experiment, did not prevent contraction-induced injury in the in situ mouse EDL muscle.

A comparison of the anthropometric, strength, endurance and flexibility characteristics of female elite and recreational climbers and non-climbers

There is limited information on the anthropometry, strength, endurance and flexibility of female rock climbers. The aim of this study was to compare these characteristics in three groups of females: Group 1 comprised 10 elite climbers aged 31.3 +/- 5.0 years (mean +/- s) who had led to a standard of 'hard very severe'; Group 2 consisted of 10 recreational climbers aged 24.1 +/- 4.0 years who had led to a standard of 'severe'; and Group 3 comprised 10 physically active individuals aged 28.5 +/- 5.0 years who had not previously rock-climbed. The tests included finger strength (grip strength, finger strength measured on climbing-specific apparatus), flexibility, bent arm hang and pull-ups. Regression procedures (analysis of covariance) were used to examine the influence of body mass, leg length, height and age. For finger strength, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values (P < 0.05) than the recreational climbers and non-climbers (four fingers, right hand: elite 321 +/- 18 N, recreational 251 +/- 14 N, non-climbers 256 +/- 15 N; four fingers, left hand: elite 307 +/- 14 N, recreational 248 +/- 12 N, non-climbers 243 +/- 11 N). For grip strength of the right hand, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values than the recreational climbers only (elite 338 +/- 12 N, recreational 289 +/- 10 N, non-climbers 307 +/- 11 N). The results suggest that elite climbers have greater finger strength than recreational climbers and non-climbers.

Flexibility: a concept analysis

Flexibility is a quality that is deemed essential for nursing as the healthcare environment escalates into greater complexity. The word "flexibility" appears in nursing literature addressing the need to prepare for the next millennium, yet the concept of flexibility is rarely defined. Other disciplines, such as engineering, have struggled for years and continue to struggle to achieve conceptual clarity with regard to flexibility. A concept analysis using Rodgers' evolutionary method was undertaken to understand the meaning of flexibility.

Evaluation of warm-up for improvement in flexibility

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effects of warming the joints by jogging and then stretching on increases in joint flexibility. Subjects were 51 students enrolled in a physical conditioning class assigned to a jog and then stretch (JS), stretch and no jog (S), or a control group (C). Both the JS and S groups performed a series of stretching exercises 2 days a week for 9 weeks, with the JS group jogging for 5 minutes prior to stretching. Subjects were pretested and posttested for shoulder, hamstrings, trunk, and ankle flexibility with a Leighton flexometer. Results of t-tests indicated that significant increases in flexibility occurred for all of the joint angles evaluated for both the JS and S groups with the exception of trunk flexibility for the JS group. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) of gain scores indicated a significant gain in ankle flexibility for the JS group compared to S and C groups. The S group produced a significant gain in trunk flexibility compared to the JS group. Both JS and S groups were effective in improving flexibility, but when the gain scores were compared the results were variable. The data from this study again demonstrate that increases in flexibility can occur as a result of a static stretching training program. However, the results do not support the claim that warming the muscles prior to stretching by jogging will result in significant increases for all of the joint angles evaluated. Both methods offer possible advantages associated with improving joint flexibility.

Comparative study of static, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching techniques on flexibility

63 college women served as subjects in this 7-wk. study examining the effects of static, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitating stretching techniques on the flexibility of the hamstring-gastrocnemius muscles. Subjects were assigned to one of the 3 treatment groups and received treatment 3 days a week. A pretest, a midtest (after 11 treatment days), and a posttest (after 21 treatment days) were administered. Analysis of group and test effects was accomplished by using a 3 X 3 factorial design with the group factor nested and the test factor crossed. Post hoc analysis indicated that all scores significantly improved from pretest to posttest. The findings indicated all 3 methods of flexibility training produced significant improvements when pretest and posttest mean scores were compared.

Age, sex, and body composition as predictors of children's performance on basic motor abilities and health-related fitness items

The purpose of this study was to determine the contribution of age, sex, and body composition to children's motor performances on selected basic motor tasks, balance, speed, agility, power, coordination, and reaction time, and health-related fitness items, flexibility, muscle strength and endurance, and cardiovascular functions. 80 subjects were students in Grades 1, 2, 3. Data were submitted to a step-wise multiple linear regression for each criterion variable. Predictor variables were age, sex, and body composition. Age was a significant factor in predicting performance on all variables except muscle strength, endurance, and flexibility. Sex significantly predicted performance for only flexibility and cardiovascular function and body composition for the power and cardiovascular function variables. Beyond the biological potential of each individual are factors that influence his motor development. These factors need early identification to make possible opportunities for each person to reach the full perimeters of motor potential.