Identifying profiles of children at risk of being less physically active: an exploratory study using a self-organised map approach for motor competence

Psychometric Properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Norwegian Children

The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) for young Norwegian children, a scale that is aligned with skills assessed in the Test of Gross Motor Development- Third Edition. We used convenience sampling to recruit 396 Norwegian-speaking children (7-10-year-olds) who completed the PMSC. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) confirmed factorial validity for the proposed three-factor model of the PMSC, encompassing measures of self-perceived ball, locomotor, and active play competence. Internal item consistency coefficients of these sub-scales were acceptable, and subsequent measurement invariant analysis found a gender difference such that boys rated their competence higher than girls in running, jumping forward, hitting a ball (racket), kicking, throwing a ball and rope climbing, while girls rated themselves higher, compared to boys, in galloping and skating/blading. Furthermore, there was a slightly better model fit for boys than for girls. Several items were significantly related to children's age, and the three-factor model exhibited differential age related factor mean differences across older and younger children. Overall, we found the PMSC to have acceptable psychometric properties for confident use in assessing perceived motor competence among 7-10-year-old Norwegian children, though we observed age and gender differences in children's responses that warrant careful interpretation of results and further research investigation.

"Profiles of motor competence and its perception accuracy among children: Association with physical fitness and body fat"

The main goals of this study were to identify profiles in school-aged children based on actual Motor Competence (MC) and accuracy of Perceived Motor Competence (PMC) and to examine how children with different profiles differ in terms of Physical Fitness (PF) and Body Fat percentage (BF%). The MC of a total of 287 children (51.6% boys, aged between 6 and 10 years-old) was assessed using the Motor Competence Assessment (MCA) instrument, and the accuracy of the PMC was measured using motor tasks (standing long jump, throwing, kicking, and walking backwards). PF and BF% were assessed using the 20m shuttle run test and TANITA, respectively. Cluster (C) analysis revealed four profiles, two of which were aligned - high MC-accurate PMC (C4) and low-inaccurate (C2), and two that were non-aligned - high-inaccurate (C1) and low-accurate (C3). Children in C4 performed better on PF and had less BF% than children in C3 and C2.

Motivation and Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction in Active Travel to Different Destinations: A Cluster Analysis with Adolescents Living in Germany

Active travel in adolescence contributes to improved health outcomes. Self-Determination Theory suggests that motivation and basic psychological needs influence travel behavior. Person-centered approaches can examine interrelationships of these constructs underlying travel behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate (i) which clusters can be identified in adolescents, (ii) whether clusters explain overall active travel behavior, (iii) whether clusters were associated with travel mode to various destinations or distance, and (iv) whether differences across clusters appear regarding sex/gender, age, and weight status. The sample included 517 (263 male, 254 female) adolescents from Germany, aged 11-15. Self-organizing maps analysis identified six clusters from nine input variables: intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, amotivation, autonomy satisfaction, competence satisfaction, and relatedness satisfaction. The most beneficial cluster regarding active travel demonstrated highest basic psychological needs satisfaction and autonomous motivation with low controlled motivation and amotivation. The most vulnerable cluster was characterized by generally low levels of motivation except for external regulation and amotivation. Clusters were not associated with distance to school, friends/relatives, shopping facilities, or leisure facilities. The findings support the importance of high quality and high quantity of motivation for active travel in adolescents.

How Do Health, Biological, Behavioral, and Cognitive Variables Interact over Time in Children of Both Sexes? A Complex Systems Approach

The present study examined gender differences in health, physical activity, physical fitness, real and perceived motor competence, and executive function indicators in three time points, and analyzed the dynamic and non-linear association between health, biological, behavioral, and cognitive variables in children followed over time. A total of 67 children (aged between six and 10 years) were followed during two years and split into two cohorts (six to eight years old: C1; eight to 10 years old: C2). Data regarding health, physical activity, real and perceived motor competence, physical fitness, and executive function indicators were obtained according to their respective protocols. Comparison tests and network analysis were estimated. Significant gender differences were found in both cohorts. The emerged networks indicated different topologies in both cohorts. No clusters were observed between the variables in C1, and there was a greater number of interactions at eight years of age. Sparse networks were observed in children aged eight and 10 years in C2, and greater connectivity was observed at nine years of age between health, physical fitness, motor competence, and physical activity indicators. This study showed that there are non-linear dynamic relationships between health, biological, behavioral, and cognitive variables over time during child development.

Self and proxy (parents and teachers') reports of child motor competence: A three-year longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study were to: 1) analyse the longitudinal trends in the evolution of the association between children's actual and perceived motor competence (AMC and PMC, respectively) according to the source of information: children, parents, and Physical Education (PE) teachers; 2) assess whether children, parents, and PE teachers can report on children's AMC longitudinally (considering the children's age, sex, and the type of motor competence).

DESIGN AND METHOD

A sample of 108 typically developing Spanish children (47.12% girls) from five schools participated in this study. AMC and PMC (locomotion, object control and overall MC) data was collected at three time points one year apart. Longitudinal mixed effects models with repeated measures were conducted.

RESULTS

Regardless of the domain of MC, no longitudinal association between children's AMC and PMC was found. Parents also exhibited limited capability to proxy report their children's AMC longitudinally. PE teachers' proxy reports of children' AMC were associated over time with object control and overall level.

CONCLUSION

This study confirms the necessity of specific training in AMC to effectively report on children's motor competence. PE teachers can be seen as a potential source to empower children's AMC and PMC development over time.

The relationship between physical activity, physical fitness and fatness in 3-6 years old boys and girls: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Physical activity (PA), fatness and fitness in children and teenagers have been associated with short and long-term health benefits. However, little research analyzing these variables focuses on the preschool education stage. Thus, the objective of this research is to study the relationship between PA, fatness and fitness in 3-6 years old boys and girls.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study includes 150 boys and girls at age between 3 and 6 years. Fatness and fitness were assessed using a PREFIT (FITness testing in PREschool children) battery as well as the sit and reach test. PA levels were measured using accelerometers for 7 days.

RESULTS

Higher PA levels were related to better fitness values. In addition, differences were found in the PA levels between boys and girls. However, PA subcomponents were not related to fatness. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in fitness tests between underweight, normal-weight and over-weight children, except in handgrip strength.

CONCLUSIONS

The few studies that have analyzed the relationship between fatness, fitness and PA in preschool have revealed controversial results. However, our study is in accordance with the majority of studies which prove that PA is associated with better fitness performances in preschool children. Since fitness is an important indicator of health, schools and parents should encourage children to practice more daily PA, especially girls, who are less active than boys. However, the discrepancy about the relationship between PA and fatness between the results of the different research highlights the necessity of carrying out further studies that analyze the relationship between these 3 variables separately in each age group (3, 4, 5 and 6 years). This is due to the fact that associations were stronger in older children rather than in younger children.

Do Active Commuters Feel More Competent and Vital? A Self-Organizing Maps Analysis in University Students

University students represent a population that faces high risks regarding physical inactivity. Research suggests that a regular engagement in physical activity (PA) may be more likely established when it leads to the experience of subjective vitality. Subjective vitality, in turn, is more likely achieved through physical activities that individuals feel competent in, and that take place in natural outdoor environments. An activity that may fulfill these conditions is active commuting to and from university (ACU). To examine whether and in which form ACU can combine this promising pattern of aspects, a person-oriented analysis was conducted. The sample contained 484 university students (59.3% females). Leisure-time PA, ACU by walking, ACU by cycling, subjective vitality, PA-related competence and body mass index were included as input variables in a self-organizing maps analysis. For both female and male university students, the identified clusters indicated that students who intensively engaged in ACU did not exhibit subjective vitality levels above average. Consistently, they did not show elevated levels of PA-related competence, which suggests that ACU does not support the perception of their physical abilities. Considerations regarding urban university environments lacking sufficient natural elements finally add to the conclusion that engaging in ACU does not suffice to establish a vitality-supportive and thus sustainable PA behavior. Additionally, the identified clusters illustrate a large heterogeneity regarding the interaction between leisure-time PA, body mass index and subjective vitality.

Profiles of Physical Fitness and Fitness Enjoyment Among Children: Associations With Sports Participation

Purpose: The present study examined whether groups of children with different physical fitness and fitness enjoyment profiles could be identified and, if so, whether the different groups varied from one another in terms of organized sports participation. Method: Five hundred and fifty-eight 8-11-year-olds (56.99% boys) participated in this cross-sectional study. Physical fitness and fitness enjoyment were assessed with seven items from a standardized test battery and a pictorial scale containing pictures referring to the enjoyment in those seven physical fitness tests, respectively. To examine whether groups with different fitness and enjoyment profiles could be identified, we conducted cluster analyses based on children's standardized physical fitness and fitness enjoyment scores. A two-way ANCOVA (sex*cluster) was conducted to investigate differences in weekly organized sports participation among each of the identified groups while controlling for age. Results: Cluster analyses revealed two groups with aligned levels of physical fitness and fitness enjoyment (i.e., relatively low-low and relatively high-high) and two groups with unaligned levels (i.e., relatively low-moderate and relatively high-moderate), respectively. Both groups with relatively high fitness scores were found to spend significantly more time in organized sports (M = 2.01 h and 2.29 h, respectively) than the two groups with relatively low fitness scores (M = 1.08 h and 0.98 h, respectively), irrespective of their enjoyment levels. Conclusion: Increasing physical fitness levels (especially among those children with suboptimal enjoyment levels) may lead to increased organized sports participation, while increased organized sports participation in its turn may lead to higher fitness levels. As such, participation in sports programs should be promoted in children of all age groups.

Fundamental Motor Skill Delays in Preschool Children With Disabilities: 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey

Delays in fundamental motor skill (FMS) competency have been observed in a variety of children with disabilities. However, evidence of FMS delays is largely limited to small, geographically specific, limitedly diverse, and non-representative samples. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between FMS competency and reported disability status among pre-school children, ages 3–5 years, using the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey (NYFS). In total, 329 preschool children (49% female; 4.00 ± 0.04 years of age) from the 2012 NYFS completed the Test of Gross Motor Development−2, including 43 preschoolers identified with a disability based on parental report (44% female; 4.20 ± 0.16 years). Associations were examined with logistic regression using sampling weights. Poor FMS competency, defined as gross motor quotient scores ≤ 79, was observed in significantly more children with disabilities (29%) than children without disabilities (10%, OR = 3.5, p = 0.04). While not statistically significant, there was a growing disparity in FMS competency at age 5 (41 vs. 11%) compared to age 3 (15 vs. 9%, OR = 1.80, p = 0.30). The results provide additional evidence for poor FMS competency among pre-school children with disabilities. FMS should be an early part of comprehensive assessments for all children suspected of disability or development delay as it is critical to identify and intervene upon FMS delays before discrepancies can widen.

Identifying actual and perceived motor competence based profiles among children

This study aimed to develop motor competence (MC) profiles in children based on their actual and perceived MC, and to investigate differences in physical activity (PA) behaviour and motivation towards PA between profiles. Two hundred and sixteen British children (7-10 years) took part in this study. Perceived motor competence (PMC) was assessed using the pictorial scale of movement competence. MC was assessed using process-oriented and product-oriented measures. A validated questionnaire assessed motivation towards PA and an objective measure of PA was employed. K-means cluster analysis was used to create profiles. Differences in PA and motivation towards PA were examined using ANCOVAs. Four groups of divergent and convergent levels were identified based on the contribution of either product or process MC with PMC. Motivation towards PA differed by profiles that included actual-process and PMC. Children with high actual process and high PMC had significantly higher levels of autonomous motivation than children with high actual process but low PMC. No significant differences were found between PA levels and profiles. Developing the quality and execution of actual motor competence (AMC) and PMC is key to stimulate motivation towards PA. Furthermore, maintaining AMC and PMC simultaneously may be imperative to children's future PA behaviour.

Relationship Between Actual and Perceived Locomotor and Ball Skills Competence Among Children: A Person-Centered Approach

This study examined whether profiles varying in actual and perceived locomotor and ball skill competencies would be identified and whether these profiles would differ in relation to children's characteristics. Participants were 127 (70 boys; 57 girls) French-speaking Canadian children (5-11 years). Actual and perceived motor competencies were, respectively, measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development - Third version and the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence. Latent profile analyses revealed four profiles: (1) Non-Alignment: Devaluation (children underestimated their slightly below average competencies; 17.9%); (2) Non-Alignment: Overestimation (children overestimated their slightly below average competencies; 24.7%); (3) Non-Alignment: Underestimation (children slightly underestimated their above average competencies; 24.9%); (4) Alignment: Low Competence (children displayed accurate but slightly below average competencies; 32.5%). Girls were more likely to correspond to profiles 1 and 4, older children and children more frequently involved in physical activity/sport practice were more likely to correspond to profile 3, and younger children were more likely to correspond to profile 2. These results emphasise the importance of considering the alignment between perceived and actual motor competencies. They also indicate that age and physical activity/sport practice were associated with higher competencies, whereas girls and younger children were associated with lower competencies.

Profiling children longitudinally: A three-year follow-up study of perceived and actual motor competence and physical fitness

Longitudinal designs enhance our understanding of children's development and its influence on movement behaviors and health. This three-year follow-up study aimed to develop profiles according to perceived and actual motor competence (MC) (locomotion, object control, and overall) and physical fitness in boys and girls longitudinally including children's temporal migrations among clusters in terms of profiling trends. A secondary aim was to compare physical activity participation and weight status at each time point according to these profiles. One hundred and four typically developing Spanish children (45.8% girls) between 4 and 9 years old at baseline participated in this study. Data were collected at three time points one year apart, between January 2016 and May 2018. A self-organizing map and K-means cluster analysis were used to classify and visualize the values and temporal trajectories longitudinally. The study of the profiles in three consecutive years revealed five profiles, three for boys [ie, profile 1 (aligned-high), profile 2 (aligned-partially-low perception-medium actual MC and fitness), and profile 3 (non-aligned-medium perception-low actual MC and fitness)]; and two for girls [ie, profile 4 (aligned-high) and profile 5 (aligned-low)]. For highly perceived and capable children, boys (profile 1) and girls (profile 4), there was a tendency for higher physical activity participation and lower body mass index and waist circumference over time compared to their counterparts who had medium and/or low levels in perception and actual MC and fitness (P < .05). As children age, those with low values in perceived and actual MC and fitness in object control skills will present a higher probability of maintaining unhealthy lifestyles. So, prior intervention, children's profiles identification should be analyzed according to the type of MC.

Movement skills, perception, and physical activity of young children: A mediation analysis

BACKGROUND

Fundamental movement skill proficiency and perceived physical competence have been shown to influence the physical activity of children. However, the mechanisms and patterns of their relationships in early childhood need to be investigated. This study examined the direct and indirect effects of fundamental movement skills and the mediating role of perceived physical competence on the physical activity of young children.

METHODS

Participants were 4- to 6-year-old children (N = 230; 121 girls, 109 boys). Fundamental movement skill components (i.e., locomotor, object control) were measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2; perceived physical competence was measured using the physical skills domain of the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence for young children; and physical activity was monitored using pedometers over a 5-day period (n = 115). Conditional process analysis was performed to examine mediation.

RESULTS

Object control skill proficiency had a significant positive effect on perceived physical competence (B = 0.28, P = 0.02), and a significant positive effect on daily step counts (B = 0.18, P = 0.04). Perceived physical competence had a significant negative effect on daily step counts (B = -0.31, P = 0.003) and mediated the indirect effect of object control skills on daily step counts (B = -0.09, 95% confidence interval: -0.17 to -0.002).

CONCLUSIONS

Object control skill proficiency had a significant direct effect on physical activity, and perceived physical competence mediates an indirect effect. The findings contribute to the evidence base supporting the development of object control skills as a factor that enables adequate physical activity in young children.

Differences in Weight Status and Autonomous Motivation towards Sports among Children with Various Profiles of Motor Competence and Organized Sports Participation

This study aimed (1) to identify profiles in children based on actual motor competence (AMC), perceived motor competence (PMC), and organized sports participation (OSP), and (2) to examine differences among these profiles in weight status as well as autonomous motivation towards sports. Children’s (N = 206; 112 boys; M_age = 10.83 ± 0.92 years) AMC, PMC, OSP, weight status, and autonomous motivation towards sports were measured using validated assessment tools. Cluster analyses identified three profiles with completely convergent levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP and three profiles with partially convergent levels. Children in the convergent profiles with average to high levels of AMC, PMC, and OSP had the most optimal profile, as they combined a healthier weight status with elevated levels of autonomous motivation, while the opposite was true for children with low levels on all three cluster-variables. Partially convergent profiles showed that AMC and PMC appear crucial for weight status, as profiles with relatively low levels of AMC and PMC had the highest weight status, independent of their OSP levels. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of promoting AMC, PMC, and OSP simultaneously to help children in achieving a healthy weight status and being autonomously motivated towards OSP.

Body Image and its Role in Physical Activity: A Systematic Review

Despite the benefits of youth sports, most children drop out by the age of 13 years. A better understanding of the etiology of sports dropout in children will serve to improve interventions to keep children active. The objective of this review was to investigate the associations between body image and perceived physical competence and sports attrition in children. A systematic literature review was conducted using PubMed and MEDLINE database searches in compliance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Included studies were full-text English articles that addressed body image or perceived competence and attrition or dropout with subjects 21 years and younger. The results were organized by age to demonstrate the changing relationship body image has on physical activity. Evidence revealed that children younger than 7 years have an inflated self-perception and are eager to participate in activities regardless of competence. Between 7 to 10 years of age, children begin to more accurately perceive their skills and draw comparisons with their peers. Elevated body mass index (BMI) becomes a deterrent between 6 to 11 years. After 12 years, teasing and gender identification issues become causes of attrition. In adolescence, body image becomes a significant determinant of continuation of physical activity, more than actual skill. Perceived physical competency and body image do not appear to affect sports attrition in children younger than 7 years. As children get older, BMI/body image and physical competency become greater factors in sports attrition, with body image playing a significant role in adolescents.

Physical Activity-Related Profiles of Female Sixth-Graders Regarding Motivational Psychosocial Variables: A Cluster Analysis Within the CReActivity Project

Introduction

Adolescents' physical activity (PA) behavior can be driven by several psychosocial determinants at the same time. Most analyses use a variable-based approach that examines relations between PA-related determinants and PA behavior on the between-person level. Using this approach, possible coexistences of different psychosocial determinants within one person cannot be examined. Therefore, by applying a person-oriented approach, this study examined (a) which profiles regarding PA-related psychosocial variables typically occur in female sixth-graders, (b) if these profiles deliver a self-consistent picture according to theoretical assumptions, and (c) if the profiles contribute to the explanation of PA.

Materials and Methods

The sample comprised 475 female sixth-graders. Seventeen PA-related variables were assessed: support for autonomy, competence and relatedness in PE as well as their satisfaction in PE and leisure-time; behavioral regulation of exercise (five subscales); self-efficacy and social support from friends and family (two subscales). Moderate-to-vigorous PA was measured using accelerometers. Data were analyzed using the self-organizing maps (SOM) analysis, a cluster analysis including an unsupervised algorithm for non-linear models.

Results

According to the respective level of psychosocial resources, a positive, a medium and a negative cluster were identified. This superordinate cluster solution represented a self-consistent picture that was in line with theoretical assumptions. The three-cluster solution contributed to the explanation of PA behavior, with the positive cluster accumulating an average of 6 min more moderate-to-vigorous PA per day than the medium cluster and 10 min more than the negative cluster. Additionally, SOM detected a subgroup within the positive cluster that benefited from a specific combination of intrinsic and external regulations with regard to PA.

Discussion

The results underline the relevance of the assessed psychosocial determinants of PA behavior in female sixth-graders. The results further indicate that the different psychosocial resources within a given person do not develop independently of one another, which supports the use of a person-oriented approach. In addition, the SOM analysis identified subgroups with specific characteristics, which would have remained undetected using variable-based approaches. Thus, this approach offers the possibility to reduce data complexity without overlooking subgroups with special demands that go beyond the superordinate cluster solution.

Built Environment, Psychosocial Factors and Active Commuting to School in Adolescents: Clustering a Self-Organizing Map Analysis

Although the built environment and certain psychosocial factors are related to adolescents' active commuting to and from school (ACS), their interrelationships have not been explored in depth. This study describes these interrelationships and behavioral profiles via a self-organizing map (SOM) analysis. The sample comprised 465 adolescents from the IPEN (International Physical Activity and the Environment Network) Adolescent study in Valencia, Spain. ACS, barriers to ACS, physical self-efficacy, social support and sociodemographics were measured by questionnaire. Street-network distance to school, net residential density and street intersection density were calculated from the Geographic Information System. The clustering of the SOM outcomes resulted in eight areas or clusters. The clusters which correspond to the lowest and highest ACS levels were then explored in depth. The lowest ACS levels presented interactions between the less supportive built environments (i.e., low levels of residential density and street connectivity in the neighborhood and greater distances to school) and unfavorable psychosocial variables (i.e., low values of physical self-efficacy and medium social support for ACS) and good access to private motorized transport at home. The adolescents with the lowest ACS values exhibited high ACS environment/safety and planning/psychosocial barrier values. Future interventions should be designed to encourage ACS and change multiple levels of influence, such as individual, psychosocial and environmental factors.