Association between parent-proxy-reported and child-self-reported perceptions of children's motor competence and children's performance-based motor skill abilities

BACKGROUND

When assessing motor skills, occupational therapists are encouraged to seek the perspectives of children and their parents to promote the delivery of client-centered care.

AIM

To investigate whether 9-12-year-old children's views and their parents' proxy views of the children's motor skill competence and their performance on a standardized, performance-based assessment are associated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty 9-12-year-old children completed the Perceived Motor Competence Questionnaire in Childhood (PMC-C) and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence - version 2 (PMSC-2), while their parents completed the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd Edition Checklist (MABC-2 Checklist). Children's objective motor skills were measured by the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2nd Edition (BOT-2). Spearman's rho correlations were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Significant associations were found between the BOT-2 total motor composite and the PMC-C. A significant association was found between the MABC-2 Checklist and the BOT-2 Strength and Agility composite, as well as the PMC-C total score.

SIGNIFICANCE AND CONCLUSIONS

Occupational therapists are encouraged to include children and their parents in the therapeutic process to capture individual perspectives and deliver client-centered care.

The Impact of Swimming on Fundamental Movement Skill Development in Children (3-11 Years): A Systematic Literature Review

Swimming is the only sport providing lifesaving skills, reducing the risk of death by drowning, a top cause of deaths in children aged 1-14 years. Research shows swimming amongst other sports can aid fundamental movement skill (FMS) development. Therefore, this review investigated the following: (1) how swimming impacts FMS development in children aged 3-11 years, (2) successful tools assessing swimming and FMS, and (3) recommendations appropriate to the UK curriculum based on findings of this study. A systematic literature review using Google Scholar, PubMed, and SPORTDiscuss was conducted to investigate the effects of swimming on FMS development. Methods included database searching, finalising articles appropriate to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and identifying relevant articles using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool assessed data quality and bias risk, whilst thematic analysis synthesised data alongside descriptive results. Ten papers were synthesised, identifying significant positive impacts of swimming on FMS, including significant pre-post testing (p < 0.01), significant improvements compared to other sports (p < 0.001), and significant improvements in specific motor skills (Balance; p = 0.0004). Future research specifically addressing swimming and FMS is essential to improving the curriculum.

The Reliability of the Wall Drop Punt Kick and Catch Test

This study aimed to evaluate the reliability of a manipulative eye-segmental (hand and foot) coordination task, namely the Wall Drop Punt Kick and Catch test (WDPK&C), over two weeks. Forty-one children and adolescents (18 boys, 23 girls) with a mean age of 10.2 (SD = 1.62) years old were recruited for assessment. Subjects had 30 s to perform as many ball impacts as possible on a wall two meters away, following a drop punt kick, rebound on the wall, and catch sequence. The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC = 0.896) for unique measures, Cronbach Alpha (α = 0.945), and Lin's Concordance Correlation Coefficient (CCC = 0.896) provide evidence of reliability considering two consecutive measurements. These results further support the reliability of the WDPK&C test in a sample of Portuguese children and adolescents. Thus, the WDPK&C test can be applied to Portuguese boy and girl children and adolescents. Forthcoming studies should test the reliability of this test across different age groups since it is intended to be a test with a wide lifespan coverage.

No Motor Costs of Physical Education with Eduball

Numerous neuroscience studies demonstrate that when motor and cognitive tasks are performed simultaneously, there is dual-task interference. Experiments show that the cost is a temporal deterioration in motor functioning. However, there is no comprehensive research on the developmental costs of dual-task exercises incorporated into physical education (PE). Such an approach is called the interdisciplinary model of PE and is used to stimulate cognitive development. Therefore, there is a knowledge gap regarding the motor costs of methods based on this model, e.g., Eduball. The Eduball method integrates core academic subjects with PE using a set of educational balls printed with letters, numbers, and other signs. To fill this knowledge gap, we replicated the Eduball experiment, focusing on motor development. The half-year intervention occurred in one primary school class. The control group was a peer class participating in traditional PE, not based on dual tasks. We tested students' space-time orientation and graphomotor, locomotor, and object control skills. We found no motor costs of the intervention. Eduball-based PE stimulated motor development as much as traditional PE. Our study suggests that methods based on the interdisciplinary model of PE are safe for motor development. As such, it is worth considering their use in children's education.

Comparative Effectiveness of Physical Activity Intervention Programs on Motor Skills in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis

Objective: To evaluate how different physical activity (PA) interventions (traditional, exergaming, and teacher/parent education) impacted children's motor skills (object control, locomotor, and gross motor). Design: Systematic review and network meta-analysis. Data sources: PubMed, Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE, and PsycINFO. Eligibility criteria: (1) Participants comprised 1708 children 3-12 years; (2) PA or exercise-based interventions were investigated; (3) only studies using a Test of Gross Motor Skills assessment were included; (4) RCT were chosen as the study design to assess the impact of PA interventions on children's motor skills; and (5) culture-based PA studies with English language only were included. Data were analyzed using a Bayesian network meta-analysis. Results: The results were reported as standardized mean differences (SMDs) with associated 95% credible intervals (CrIs). For object control, aerobic intervention (SMD 6.90, 95% Crl 1.39 to 13.50); for locomotor, exergaming intervention (SMD 12.50, 95% Crl 0.28 to 24.50); and for gross motor, aerobic intervention (SMD 7.49, 95% Crl 0.11 to 15.70) were the most effective treatments. Conclusion: Children's FMSs have been improved through different PA interventions. Among them, aerobic interventions seem to be the most effective intervention in enhancing object control skills and overall gross motor skills.

Everyone Can Implement Eduball in Physical Education to Develop Cognitive and Motor Skills in Primary School Students

Studies suggest that incorporating core academic subjects into physical education (PE) stimulates the development of both motor and cognitive skills in primary school students. For example, several experiments show that children’s participation in Eduball, i.e., a method that uses educational balls with printed letters, numbers, and other signs, improves their physical fitness while simultaneously developing their mathematical and language skills. However, the question of who should conduct such classes to make them most effective (regular classroom teachers, physical education teachers, or maybe both in cooperation?) remains unanswered. Here, we replicated a previous Eduball experiment, but now, instead of one experimental group, there were three. In the first, Eduball-classes were conducted by the classroom teacher, in the second, by the physical education teacher, and in the third, collaboratively. After one year intervention, all experimental groups significantly improved both their cognitive (mathematical, reading, and writing) and gross motor (locomotor and object control) skills, and these effects were larger than in the control group participating in traditional PE. Importantly, there were no differences in progression between the Eduball-groups. Thus, our study demonstrates that methods linking PE with cognitive tasks can be effectively used by both PE specialists and general classroom teachers.

Gross motor impairment and its relation to social skills in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and two meta-analyses

Gross motor ability is associated with profound differences in how children experience and interact with their social world. A rapidly growing literature on motor development in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) indicates that autistic individuals exhibit impairment in gross motor skills. However, due to substantial heterogeneity across studies, it remains unclear which gross motor skills are impaired in ASD, when and for whom these differences emerge, and whether motor and social impairments are related. The present article addressed these questions by synthesizing research on gross motor skills in ASD in two separate meta-analyses. The first examined gross motor deficits in ASD compared to neurotypical (NT) controls, aggregating data from 114 studies representing 6,423 autistic and 2,941 NT individuals. Results demonstrated a significant overall deficit in gross motor skills in ASD (Hedges' g = -1.04) that was robust to methodological and phenotypic variation and was significant at every level of the tested moderators. However, moderation analyses revealed that this deficit was most pronounced for object control skills (i.e., ball skills), clinical assessment measures, and movements of the upper extremities or the whole body. The second meta-analysis investigated whether gross motor and social skills are related in ASD, synthesizing data from 21 studies representing 654 autistic individuals. Findings revealed a modest but significant overall correlation between gross motor and social skills in ASD (r = 0.27). Collectively, results support the conclusion that motor deficits are tied to the core symptoms of ASD. Further research is needed to test the causality and directionality of this relationship. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Fundamental Motor Skill Delays in Preschool Children With Disabilities: 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey

Delays in fundamental motor skill (FMS) competency have been observed in a variety of children with disabilities. However, evidence of FMS delays is largely limited to small, geographically specific, limitedly diverse, and non-representative samples. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between FMS competency and reported disability status among pre-school children, ages 3–5 years, using the 2012 National Youth Fitness Survey (NYFS). In total, 329 preschool children (49% female; 4.00 ± 0.04 years of age) from the 2012 NYFS completed the Test of Gross Motor Development−2, including 43 preschoolers identified with a disability based on parental report (44% female; 4.20 ± 0.16 years). Associations were examined with logistic regression using sampling weights. Poor FMS competency, defined as gross motor quotient scores ≤ 79, was observed in significantly more children with disabilities (29%) than children without disabilities (10%, OR = 3.5, p = 0.04). While not statistically significant, there was a growing disparity in FMS competency at age 5 (41 vs. 11%) compared to age 3 (15 vs. 9%, OR = 1.80, p = 0.30). The results provide additional evidence for poor FMS competency among pre-school children with disabilities. FMS should be an early part of comprehensive assessments for all children suspected of disability or development delay as it is critical to identify and intervene upon FMS delays before discrepancies can widen.

Effects of Traditional Indian Dance on Motor Skills and Balance in Children with Down syndrome

The objective of the study was to examine the effects of traditional Indian dances like Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi and Kathak on motor skills and balance in children with Down syndrome compared to neuromuscular training. In this randomised double-arm design, 36 children with Down syndrome aged 6-10 years and with a score of <5 in Beighton's hypermobility test participated in either Indian classical dance (n = 18) or neuromuscular training (n = 18). Both the groups practised an hour-long session a day, three days a week for six weeks in six special-schools. Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), Four Square Step Test (FSST) and paediatric balance scale were the outcome measures. After six weeks of training, there is a significant group difference of change score in the Gross Motor Quotient standard score of TGMD-2 [experimental: 30.47 vs. control: 11.1], locomotor subset of TGMD-2 [experimental: 11.1 vs. control: 4.35] and FSST [experimental: 4.29 vs. control: 2.41], but not in the paediatric balance scale [experimental: 3.59 vs. control: 3.76]. The traditional Indian dance substantially improved the locomotor skills of children with Down syndrome than that of neuromuscular exercises. Both the dance and neuromuscular training equally impacted the balance capacity.

Relative Age Effect in Physical Fitness during the Elementary School Years

Age-groups are commonly implemented in education and sports in order to provide fair and equal opportunities. Various studies, however, have shown a competitive advantage for early born children over their relatively younger peers, which is referred to as relative age effect. The present study examined differences in various components of physical fitness in Austrian elementary-school children. A total of 18,168 children (51% boys) between 6 and 11 years of age provided valid data on anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness. Specifically, children completed eight fitness tests that assessed cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and power, speed, agility, flexibility and object control. Across age-specific quartiles, older children were significantly taller and heavier than their younger peers. Older children also displayed better performance for strength and power, speed, agility and object control, while differences in cardio-respiratory endurance were less pronounced. These results highlight the presence of a relative age effect during the elementary school years and emphasize the need to consider individual differences in the evaluation of children's performance. As all children should be given equal opportunities to engage successfully in physical education and sports, physical education teachers and youth coaches need to be educated on the implications of a relative age effect.

Socioeconomic and Familial Factors Associated with Gross Motor Skills among US Children Aged 3-5 Years: The 2012 NHANES National Youth Fitness Survey

The first aim of this study was to examine the prevalence of below average gross motor skills in a representative sample of US children aged 3 to 5 years. The second aim was to identify socioeconomic and familial characteristics that are associated with below average gross motor skills. Secondary analysis was conducted using the datasets from the 2012 National Health and Examination Survey National Youth Fitness Survey (NNYFS). The NNYFS assessed gross motor skills among 329 children aged 3-5 years, using the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition (TGMD-2). Socioeconomic and familial characteristics of interest, such as family income and family structure, were asked in an in-person interview. This study estimated that one in three US children age 3 to 5 years old (33.9%) scored below average for gross motor quotient. In the gross motor subsets, one in four (24.4%) scored below average for locomotion and two in five (39.9%) scored below average for object control. Children living below the poverty threshold were more likely to have a higher gross motor quotient (odds ratio, OR = 2.76; 95% confidence interval, CI = 1.09-7.00). Girls were more likely to have a higher locomotor score (OR = 2.17; 95% CI = 1.10-4.25). Those living with other child(ren) aged ≤5 years were more likely to have a higher locomotor score (OR = 2.36; 95% CI = 1.01-5.54), while those living with child(ren) aged 6-17 years were more likely to have a higher object control score (OR = 1.83; 95% CI = 1.24-2.69). This study revealed risk factors associated with poor gross motor development, furthering our understanding of gross motor development in early childhood.

The Effects of Combined Movement and Storytelling Intervention on Motor Skills in South Asian and White Children Aged 5-6 Years Living in the United Kingdom

Early motor development has an important role in promoting physical activity (PA) during childhood and across the lifespan. Children from South Asian backgrounds are less active and have poorer motor skills, thus identifying the need for early motor skill instruction. This study examines the effect of a movement and storytelling intervention on South Asian children’s motor skills. Following ethics approval and consent, 39 children (46% South Asian) participated in a 12-week movement and storytelling intervention. Pre and post, seven motor skills (run, jump, throw, catch, stationary dribble, roll, and kick) were assessed using Children’s Activity and Movement in Preschool Study protocol. At baseline, South Asian children had poorer performance of motor skills. Following the intervention, all children improved their motor skills, with a bigger improvement observed for South Asian children. Early intervention provided remedial benefits to delays in motor skills and narrowed the motor skills gap in ethnic groups.

Gross motor proficiency and intellectual functioning: A comparison among children with Down syndrome, children with borderline intellectual functioning, and typically developing children

This cross-sectional study examines differences in gross motor proficiency as a function of different intellectual functioning profiles. Two motor areas have been investigated as being equally essential to gross motor functions in every-day life: locomotion and object control.It aims to compare gross motor skills endorsed by children with Down syndrome (DS), children with borderline intellectual functioning (BIF), and typically developing children (TDC).Group 1 was composed of 18 children with DS (chronological age = 8.22), group 2 was composed of 18 children with BIF (chronological age = 9.32), and group 3 was composed of 18 children with typical development (TD) (chronological age = 9.28).Gross motor skills were measured through the test of gross motor development (TGMD-Test) composed of locomotion and object control tasks.Children with DS showed worse gross motor skills compared with children with BIF and typically developing children by underscoring both on all locomotion (e.g., walking, running, hopping, galloping, jumping, sliding, and leaping) and all object control tasks (e.g., throwing, catching, striking, bouncing, kicking, pulling, and pushing).In DS group strengths were found on run and slide skills, in BIF group strengths were on run, long jump and slide skills and in TDC group strengths were on run and slide skills. For all of the 3 groups the locomotor worst performed task was jump forward with arm swing.Findings suggest implications for further practice to develop evidence-based exercise programs aimed to rehabilitate gross motor skills through the regular participation in structured exercise activities.

Movement pattern components and mastery of an object control skill with error-reduced learning

OBJECTIVES

This paper reports the effects of error-reduced learning on movement components and mastery of overhand throwing in children with and without intellectual disability.

METHODS

Secondary data analysis was performed on two samples of children (typically developing, TD; intellectual disability, ID) who practiced overhand throwing in either an error-reduced (ER) or error-strewn (ES) condition. Movement pattern components were assessed using a sub-skill of Test of Gross Motor Development-2.

RESULTS

In TD participants, ER learners displayed improved follow-through while ES learners did not. Among children with ID, ER learners displayed greater improvements of hip/shoulder rotation and follow-through, than ES learners. Discriminant function analysis confirmed that changes in these components differentiated learning groups. Greater percentage of ER, compared to ES, participants progressed to mastery.

CONCLUSIONS

With suppressed errors, the follow-through component of overhand throwing is likely to emerge, particularly in children with inferior abilities, and cognitive limitations. Error-reduced learning facilitates mastery.

Does physical education influence eye-hand coordination? The Lifestyles of our Kids intervention study

In Australian government-funded primary schools, the responsibility for physical education (PE) falls mainly on general classroom teachers, many of whom possess limited PE training. This study sought to examine the impact of specialist-taught PE on eye-hand coordination (EHC) development. In this 4-year cluster-randomized intervention, participants were 187 boys and 172 girls initially in grade 2 in 29 primary schools, where no school employed university-trained specialist PE teachers. In 13 (intervention) schools, specialist PE teachers conducted 268 PE classes (two 45-minute sessions/wk) from grade 2 to grade 6. The intervention was based on traditional PE educational objectives, including fundamental motor skills, but did not specifically focus on EHC. The remaining 16 (control) schools continued with common-practice PE taught by general classroom teachers (30-60 min/wk). EHC was measured by a ball throw and wall-rebound catch test and recorded at ages 8, 10, and 12 (SD 0.3) at ends of grades 2, 4, and 6, respectively. There was steady yearly improvement of EHC in both groups, but no evidence of any intervention effect in boys (P=.88) or girls (P=.20). The introduction of specialist-taught PE during 4 years of primary school did not influence EHC development. Considering evidence that classroom teachers make little contribution to PE in this jurisdiction, together with the steady progression of EHC over the 4 years, other influences such as organized sport, after-school activities, natural development, and parental instruction are conceivably more influential factors in EHC development during primary school years.

Test of gross motor development-2 for Filipino children with intellectual disability: validity and reliability

This study aimed to examine aspects of validity and reliability of the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) in Filipino children with intellectual disability. Content and construct validity were verified, as well as inter-rater and intra-rater reliability. Two paediatric physiotherapists tested 81 children with intellectual disability (mean age = 9.29 ± 2.71 years) on locomotor and object control skills. Analysis of covariance, confirmatory factor analysis and analysis of variance were used to test validity, while Cronbach's alpha, intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and Bland-Altman plots were used to examine reliability. Age was a significant predictor of locomotor and object control scores (P = 0.004). The data fit the hypothesised two-factor model with fit indices as follows: χ(2) = 33.525, DF = 34, P = 0.491, χ(2)/DF = 0.986. As hypothesised, gender was a significant predictor for object control skills (P = 0.038). Participants' mean scores were significantly below mastery (locomotor, P < 0.001; object control, P < 0.001). Cronbach's alpha was 0.830 for locomotor and 0.792 for object control components. ICC for locomotor and object control scores ranged from 0.995 to 0.998, suggesting excellent intra-rater and inter-rater reliability, confirmed by Bland-Altman analysis. This study provides evidence of sufficient content and construct validity, internal consistency and rater reliability of TGMD-2 for Filipino children with intellectual disability.

The development and validation of a golf swing and putt skill assessment for children

The aim was to describe development of a process-oriented instrument designed to assess the golf swing and putt stroke, and to assess the instrument's discriminative validity in terms of age and reliability (intra-rater and re-test). A Delphi consultation (with golf industry professionals and researchers in movement skill assessment) was used to develop an assessment for each skill based on existing skill assessment protocols. Each skill had six components to be marked as present/absent. Individual scores were based on the number of performance components successfully demonstrated over two trials for each skill (potential score range 0 to 24). Children (n = 43) aged 6-10 years (M = 7.8 years, SD = 1.3) were assessed in both skills live in the field by one rater at Time 1(T1). A subset of children (n = 28) had consent for assessments to be videoed. Six weeks later 19 children were reassessed, five days apart (T2, T3). An ANOVA assessed discriminative validity i.e. whether skill competence at T1 differed by age (6 years, 7/8 years and 9/10 years). Intraclass correlations (ICC) assessed intra-rater reliability between the live and video assessment at T1 and test-retest reliability (between T2 and T3). Paired t-tests assessed any systematic differences between live and video assessments (T1) and between T2 and T3. Older children were more skilled (F (2, 40) = 11.18, p < 0.001). The live assessment reflected the video assessment (ICC = 0.79, 95% CI 0.59, 0.90) and scores did not differ between live and video assessments. Test retest reliability was acceptable (ICC = 0.60, 95% CI 0.23, 0.82), although the mean score was slightly higher at retest. This instrument could be used reliably by golf coaches and physical education teachers as part of systematic early player assessment and feedback. Key pointsGolf is becoming an increasingly popular sport among young children, however there is no standard protocol available to assess and identify skill deficits, mastery level, and talent identification in beginner young golf players.Process rather than product oriented outcomes better identify areas of skill deficit in young children.The proposed swing and putt instrument can reliably identify skill deficits in children of elementary school age who are new to golf and can be used by a range of stakeholders including golf coaches, generalist sport coaches and physical education teachers.