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Zeid D, Seemiller LR, Wagstaff DA, Gould TJ. Behavioral and genetic architecture of fear conditioning and related phenotypes. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2023; 205:107837. [PMID: 37805118 PMCID: PMC10842961 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Contextual fear conditioning is a form of Pavlovian learning during which an organism learns to fear previously neutral stimuli following their close temporal presentation with an aversive stimulus. In mouse models, freezing behavior is typically used to quantify learned fear. This dependent variable is the sum of multiple processes, including associative/configural learning, fear and anxiety, and general activity. To explore phenotypic constructs underlying contextual fear conditioning and correlated behaviors, as well as factors that may contribute to individual differences in learning and mental health, we tested BXD recombinant inbred strains previously found to show extreme contextual fear conditioning phenotypes and BXD parental strains, C57BL/6J and DBA/2J, in a series of tests including locomotor, anxiety, contextual/cued fear conditioning and non-associative hippocampus-dependent learning behaviors. Hippocampal expression of two previously identified candidate genes for contextual fear conditioning was also quantified. Behavioral and gene expression data were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), which suggested five unique constructs representing activity/anxiety/exploration, associative fear learning, anxiety, post-shock freezing, and open field activity phenotypes. Associative fear learning and expression of one candidate gene, Hacd4, clusteredas a construct withinthefactor analysis. Post-shock freezingduring fear conditioning and expression of candidate gene Ptprd emerged as another unique construct, highlighting theindependenceof freezing after footshock from other fear conditioning variables in the current dataset.EFA results additionally suggest shared phenotypic variance in adaptive murine behaviors related to anxiety, general activity, and exploration. These findings inform understanding of fear learning and underlying biological mechanisms that may interact to produce individual differences in fear- and learning-related behaviors in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Zeid
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, United States.
| | - L R Seemiller
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, United States
| | - D A Wagstaff
- Department of Human Development and Family Studies, Penn State University, United States
| | - T J Gould
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, Penn State University, United States
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Brust V, Schindler PM, Lewejohann L. Lifetime development of behavioural phenotype in the house mouse (Mus musculus). Front Zool 2015; 12 Suppl 1:S17. [PMID: 26816516 PMCID: PMC4722345 DOI: 10.1186/1742-9994-12-s1-s17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
With each trajectory taken during the ontogeny of an individual, the number of optional behavioural phenotypes that can be expressed across its life span is reduced. The initial range of phenotypic plasticity is largely determined by the genetic material/composition of the gametes whereas interacting with the given environment shapes individuals to adapt to/cope with specific demands. In mammalian species, the phenotype is shaped as the foetus grows, depending on the environment in the uterus, which in turn depends on the outer environment the mother experiences during pregnancy. After birth, a complex interaction between innate constitution and environmental conditions shapes individual lifetime trajectories, bringing about a wide range of diversity among individual subjects. In laboratory mice inbreeding has been systematically induced in order to reduce the genetic variability between experimental subjects. In addition, within most laboratories conducting behavioural phenotyping with mice, breeding and housing conditions are highly standardised. Despite such standardisation efforts a considerable amount of variability persists in the behaviour of mice. There is good evidence that phenotypic variation is not merely random but might involve individual specific behavioural patterns consistent over time. In order to understand the mechanisms and the possible adaptive value of the maintenance of individuality we review the emergence of behavioural phenotypes over the course of the life of (laboratory) mice. We present a literature review summarizing developmental stages of behavioural development of mice along with three illustrative case studies. We conclude that the accumulation of environmental differences and experiences lead to a “mouse individuality” that becomes increasingly stable over the lifetime.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Brust
- Behavioral Biology, University of Osnabrueck, Barbarastrasse 11, 49076 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Philipp M Schindler
- Behavioral Biology, University of Osnabrueck, Barbarastrasse 11, 49076 Osnabrueck, Germany
| | - Lars Lewejohann
- Behavioral Biology, University of Osnabrueck, Barbarastrasse 11, 49076 Osnabrueck, Germany
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Cox KH, So NLT, Rissman EF. Foster dams rear fighters: strain-specific effects of within-strain fostering on aggressive behavior in male mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e75037. [PMID: 24040381 PMCID: PMC3769275 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that genes and environment interact to produce behavioral phenotypes. One environmental factor with long-term effects on gene transcription and behavior is maternal care. A classic paradigm for examining maternal care and genetic interactions is to foster pups of one genetic strain to dams of a different strain ("between-strain fostering"). In addition, fostering to a dam of the same strain ("within-strain fostering") is used to reduce indirect effects, via behavioral changes in the dams, of gestation treatments on offspring. Using within-and between-strain fostering we examined the contributions of genetics/prenatal environment, maternal care, and the effects of fostering per se, on adult aggressive behavior in two inbred mouse strains, C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (DBA). We hypothesized that males reared by dams of the more aggressive DBA strain would attack intruders faster than those reared by B6 dams. Surprisingly, we found that both methods of fostering enhanced aggressive behavior, but only in B6 mice. Since all the B6 offspring are genetically identical, we asked if maternal behavior of B6 dams was affected by the relatedness of their pups. In fact, B6 dams caring for foster B6 pups displayed significantly reduced maternal behaviors. Finally, we measured vasopressin and corticotrophin releasing hormone mRNA in the amygdalae of adult B6 males reared by foster or biological dams. Both genes correlated with aggressive behavior in within-strain fostered B6 mice, but not in mice reared by their biological dams. In sum, we have demonstrated in inbred laboratory mice, that dams behave differently when rearing their own newborn pups versus pups from another dam of the same strain. These differences in maternal care affect aggression in the male offspring and transcription of Avp and Crh in the brain. It is likely that rearing by foster dams has additional effects and implications for other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly H. Cox
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Nina L. T. So
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Emilie F. Rissman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics and Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
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Burns-Cusato M, Scordalakes EM, Rissman EF. Of mice and missing data: what we know (and need to learn) about male sexual behavior. Physiol Behav 2005; 83:217-32. [PMID: 15488541 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
With recent advances in molecular genetics, the popularity of mice as subjects for behavioral neuroscience is increasing at an exponential rate. Unfortunately, the existing body of knowledge on sexual behavior in male mice is not large and many basic gaps exist. The assumption that what is true of rats is also true of mice is a dangerous one that can misdirect and, in the worst case, impede progress. We summarize the current knowledge about the sexual behavior of male mice, with an emphasis on hormonal bases of these behaviors. Behavioral differences between strains, developmental actions of steroids, activational actions of steroids given peripherally and in the brain, and data generated in various receptor knockout and related mice are discussed. In addition, suggestions are made for the standardization of experimental protocols used in investigations of the sexual physiology and behavior of male mice in order to facilitate between-experiment and between-laboratory comparisons and to expedite the growth of knowledge in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Burns-Cusato
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Jordan Hall, 1300 Jefferson Park Avenue, P.O. Box 800733, University of Virginia Medical School, Charlottesville, VA 22909, USA.
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Brown RE, Mathieson WB, Stapleton J, Neumann PE. Maternal behavior in female C57BL/6J and DBA/2J inbred mice. Physiol Behav 1999; 67:599-605. [PMID: 10549899 DOI: 10.1016/s0031-9384(99)00109-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Inbred strains of mice exhibit different patterns of maternal behavior, providing material for studies of genetic influences on the expression of maternal behavior. Beginning 1 day after birth, maternal behavior was recorded daily for 14 days in the first and second litters of C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) mothers. D2 mice had higher pup survival than B6 mice, and pup survival was higher in both strains in second litters than in first litters. D2 mothers spent more time engaged in maternal behavior, especially resting with, crouching over, and nursing pups than B6 mothers with first litters, but not with second litters. Not all measures of maternal behavior were correlated with pup survival; with both litters, B6 mothers retrieved pups faster than D2 mothers.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Brown
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, Canada
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Cohen-Salmon C, Venault P, Martin B, Raffalli-Sébille MJ, Barkats M, Clostre F, Pardon MC, Christen Y, Chapouthier G. Effects of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) on learning and possible actions on aging. JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY, PARIS 1997; 91:291-300. [PMID: 9457661 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-4257(97)82409-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A study of the effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) has shown enhancing effects on training in adult and aged Swiss mice. An analysis of inbred mice has confirmed this sensitivity to EGb 761, but depending on the strains, with different effects at different ages. The most interesting results are related to improvements in performances observed with aged mice of the DBA/2J strain. The results obtained with inbred strains in the study of the mossy fibers of the hippocampus make it possible to suggest a link between the improvements in training and the histological structure of the hippocampus. This possibility, which can be confirmed by further studies, is presented here.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cohen-Salmon
- Génétique, Neurogénétique et Comportement, URA 1294 CNRS, UFR Biomédicale, Université de Paris V-René Descartes, France
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Hitzemann R, Qian Y, Kanes S, Dains K, Hitzemann B. Genetics and the organization of the basal ganglia. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 1995; 38:43-94. [PMID: 8537205 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(08)60524-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R Hitzemann
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Pharmacology and Neurobiology and Behavior, SUNY at Stony Brook 11794, USA
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Joyal CC, Lalonde R, Vikis-Freibergs V, Botez MI. Are age-related behavioral disorders improved by folate administration? Exp Aging Res 1993; 19:367-76. [PMID: 8281977 DOI: 10.1080/03610739308253944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
In this brief review of the possible link between age-related behavioral disorders and brain folate levels, preliminary data on humans and animals are presented. These data indicate that folate administration may improve some age-related behavioral dysfunctions. In aged humans and rats, there is a defect in the absorption of dietary folate, leading perhaps to a decrease in brain folate levels. If so, folate therapy may replenish brain stores of folates and may reverse some age-related behavioral deficits. Some questions concerning the possible relationship among mood status, intellectual functions, and folate levels in aging are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Joyal
- Hôtel-Dieu Hospital, Neurology Service, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Lhotellier L, Perez-Diaz F, Cohen-Salmon C. Locomotor and exploratory activity in three inbred strains of mice from young adulthood to senescence. Exp Aging Res 1993; 19:177-87. [PMID: 8319735 DOI: 10.1080/03610739308253930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Nine variables measuring activity and exploratory behavior were collected for nine independent groups of three inbred strains of mice (BALB/c, C57BL/6, and DBA/2) at three ages (150, 400, and 750 days). An analysis of variance measuring differences of performances and a covariance analysis estimating the evolution of scores with age shows that (1) some variables are unaffected by age; (2) a strain-age interaction is observed for some variables; (3) some groups do not exhibit any age-related change for certain variables; and (4) the level of ability of age-related behavior varies across groups. These data argue for rejection of a general factor of aging and suggest that we are dealing with two distinct phenotypes: performance, and age-related modification of the performance, which therefore are not linked.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lhotellier
- Laboratoire Génétique, Neurogénétique et Comportement, Université Paris V, France
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Blizard DA. Recombinant-inbred strains: application to behavioral phenomena. Behav Genet 1992; 22:615-9. [PMID: 1290449 DOI: 10.1007/bf01066633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D A Blizard
- Center for Developmental and Health Genetics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park 16802
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Lhotellier L, Cohen-Salmon C. Genetics and senescence. I. Age-related changes in activity and exploration in three inbred strains of mice. Physiol Behav 1989; 45:491-3. [PMID: 2756040 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(89)90063-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Exploratory, locomotor and ambulatory activities were measured in nine independent groups of three inbred strains of mice (BALB/cBy, C57BL/6J and DBA/2J), at three different ages (150 days, 400 days and 750 days). The results show that for two of the three variables, the age-related changes present different patterns as a function of strain. The genetic and/or environmental correlates of the reactivity to aging may thus depend on the behavioral trait under study.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lhotellier
- Laboratoire Génétique Neurogénétique et Comportement, URA 216 CNRS UER Biomédicale, Université Paris, France
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12
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Abstract
Groups of C57BL/6J (B6) and DBA/2J (D2) mice, aged 100 to 700 days, were trained on 7 appetitive learning tasks in order to determine which tasks might be suitable for studies of learning by old mice. Old B6 and D2 mice were both deficient in learning a discrimination reversal and two complex maze tasks; age did not affect performance on a simple spatial discrimination by subjects from either strain. Three tasks yielded strain-specific results. Old B6, but not old D2, animals were impaired on a visual discrimination problem. On a test of latent learning, old B6 animals were superior to younger mice, but the reverse trend characterized the D2 mice. Older D2 mice were retarded on a food-seeking task; B6 mice of all ages failed this test. The deficits observed in learning by old mice are thus strain- as well as task-specific. However, the deprivation procedures of this experiment resulted in excessive mortality in the oldest groups of mice, indicating that appetitive learning is contraindicated as a method for investigating learning by old mice.
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Abstract
The Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguicultatus) is suggested as a model for aging research because of its unique physiological attributes, ease of handling, and because of data previously collected. Factors that demonstrate the gerbils' suitability in fulfulling practical and scientific considerations important in determining a model for aging research are listed. Additionally, several unique physiological attributes of gerbils are described. Based on these attributes and on review of research in gerbils, it is suggested that gerbils can serve as animal models for behavioral and biological processes, and for normative and pathological aspects for aging.
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Henry KR. Effects of dietary restriction on presbyacusis in the mouse. AUDIOLOGY : OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF AUDIOLOGY 1986; 25:329-37. [PMID: 3593092 DOI: 10.3109/00206098609078397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
If dietary restriction can extend the human life span, it would be useful to know whether presbyacusis would continue its normal pace. This question was experimentally addressed, using the mouse as a model. Alternate-day feeding and fasting resulted in restricted mice of the AKR and AU/Ss inbred strains weighing less than their continuously fed controls. Restriction did not increase the life span or alter presbyacusis of the AKR mouse, but it improved both functions in the AU/Ss mouse. Their life spans were increased by 40%, and cochlear functions were better than controls at every age at which animals of both groups were still alive. Nonetheless, the oldest remaining restricted AU/Ss mouse had greater cochlear loss than was seen in any AU/Ss control mice. This study demonstrates that dietary restriction can slow the cochlear losses in a mammal which has a presbyacusis condition similar to that of humans.
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Woodruff-Pak DS, Thompson RF. Classical conditioning of the eyelid response in rabbits as a model system for the study of brain mechanisms of learning and memory in aging. Exp Aging Res 1985; 11:109-22. [PMID: 4092718 DOI: 10.1080/03610738508259290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Cheal ML, Johnson MR, Ellingboe J, Skupny AS. Perseveration of attention to conspecific odors and novel objects in castrated gerbils. Physiol Behav 1984; 33:563-70. [PMID: 6522476 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(84)90372-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Castrated male and female gerbils were tested for odor preference and for attention to conspecific odors and a novel object. Castrated gerbils housed with sham-operates preferred home odors, discriminated between two groups of male gerbils by olfactory cues, and perseverated in attention to odors of male gerbils and to a novel object. Similar perseveration to male conspecific odors was shown in gerbils given injections of L-DOPA (30 mg/kg). Combined treatment (castration and L-DOPA) resulted in additive effects on perseveration. This research challenges two general hypotheses of gonadal hormone function. The first, that changes in odor preference after castration are due to a loss in testicular androgen, is insufficient, because (1) female as well as male gerbils showed similar perseveration to odors, (2) there was a significant correlation between LH and duration of investigation of male conspecific odors, and (3) L-DOPA, the dopamine precurser, also caused perseveration to conspecific odors. The second, that gonadal hormones are responsible for persistence of attention, cannot be broadly generalized, because castration with resultant elevation of LH and regression of ventral glands resulted in perseveration of attention in male and female gerbils.
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Ingram DK, Archer JR, Harrison DE, Reynolds MA. Physiological and behavioral correlates of lifespan in aged C57BL/6J mice. Exp Gerontol 1982; 17:295-303. [PMID: 7160448 DOI: 10.1016/0531-5565(82)90019-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Physiological and behavioral measurements were made in a cohort of 29-month-old male C57BL/6J mice to determine whether any correlated significantly with lifespan. Significant linear relationships with lifespan were found among the physiological measures, including hematocrit and hemoglobin levels and collagen denaturation rate; however, body weight failed to be a significant predictor of survival. Among the behavioral variables studied, significant quadratic relationships with lifespan were found for exploratory activity and passive avoidance learning, while performance on a rotorod and a tightwire showed no significant relationships with lifespan. Through the use of multiple regression techniques, about one-third of the variance in lifespan could be explained by a combination of physiological variables, and about two-fifths could be explained by a combination of behavioral variables.
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Warren JM. Age and brightness discrimination learning by c57BL/6J mice. Dev Psychobiol 1982; 15:9-12. [PMID: 7054020 DOI: 10.1002/dev.420150103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Dean RL, Scozzafava J, Goas JA, Regan B, Beer B, Bartus RT. Age-related differences in behavior across the life span of the C57BL/6J mouse. Exp Aging Res 1981; 7:427-51. [PMID: 7333338 DOI: 10.1080/03610738108259823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
C57Bl/6J mice, representing four divergent age groups (ranging from 3 months to 31 months) were each tested on a number of behavioral procedures, selected to sample a wide spectrum of behaviors. The evaluation demonstrated that, as with other mammalian species, not all behaviors in the mouse are affected by old age. Most severely impaired was retention of a single-trial passive avoidance task, most probably reflecting a deficit in memory ability. One tests of motor function, the most demanding tasks revealed the greatest debilitating effects of age, paralleling the effects of task difficulty previously reported in numerous learning studies. Finally, a deficit in the ability to modify preexisting habits in a T-maze learning situation was observed, corroborating reports of increased perseveration in aged humans and nonhuman primates. The similarity of these results across the life span of the C57 mouse with those previously reported for other aged mammalian species demonstrates that certain common types of behaviors seem to be impaired selectively by increased age across mammalian species and raises the possibility that common neurological etiologies may exist for these behavioral deficits.
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Abstract
The effect of varying doses of d-amphetamine on the activity level of C57BL/6J mice (known for their high activity level), DBA/1J, C3H/HeJ, and C3D2F1 mice was investigated (all mice were 25 to 30 days old). Activity was measured by the use of an activity cage with a revolving drum. After determination of baseline activity level, the animals were assigned to the following set of i.p. injections: (1) normal saline, (2) d-amphetamine 0.2 mg/kg, (3) d-amphetamine 0.5 mg/kg, (4) d-amphetamine 5 mg/kg. The mean activity level of the C57BL/6J mice was significantly higher than that of the other strains. The mean activity level after 5 mg/kg was significantly lower than after other dosages in all strains. All strains responded similarly to d-amphetamine as is apparent from the parallel profiles for the dose-response curves. The response of the developing mice to d-amphetamine is at variance with the known response of mature mice.
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Hano J, Vetulani J, Sansone M, Oliverio A. Effect of clonidine, amphetamine, and their combinations on the locomotor activity of CD-1 and C57BL/6 mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1978; 9:741-6. [PMID: 746049 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(78)90350-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Clonidine inhibited the exploratory motor activity of C57BL/6 mice non-habituated to the testing conditions. In CD-1 mice clonidine did not depress exploratory activity but did elevate the basal locomotor activity of animals both non-habituated and habituated to testing conditions. Amphetamine increased the locomotor activity of many C57BL/6 mice and conversely inhibited the locomotion of many CD-1 mice. In both strains, amphetamine in doses up to 2 mg/kg was unable to alter effects produced by clonidine. Results suggest that the locomotor activity of C57BL/6 mice is more sensitive than that of CD-1 mice to drugs affecting the central noradrenergic system.
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