Microparticles containing erlotinib-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles for treatment of non-small cell lung cancer

Targeted co-delivery nanosystem based on methotrexate, curcumin, and PAMAM dendrimer for improvement of the therapeutic efficacy in cervical cancer

The simultaneous administration of multiple drugs within identical nanocarriers to cancer cells or tissues can result in the effective action of drugs at reduced concentrations. In this investigation, PAMAM dendrimers (G4-PAMAM) were employed to link with methotrexate (MTX) using DCC/NHS chemistry and followed by the entrapment of curcumin (Cur) within it. The establishment of covalent bonds between MTX and the PAMAM dendrimer led to PAMAM-MTX interaction, verified and described through FT-IR. Various techniques were employed to evaluate the structural properties of the prepared Cur-PAMAM-MTX NC. The Cur-PAMAM-MTX NC, after preparation, exhibited a particle size of 249 nm, with an encapsulation efficiency (EE) of ~ 81% for Cur. The cumulative in vitro release of Cur-loaded NC indicated a controlled release influenced by time and pH. The cell study results revealed that Cur-PAMAM-MTX NC exhibited significantly higher cytotoxicity than free MTX, Cur, and other formulations tested in vitro. The synergistic effect of co-delivery of MTX and Cur by PAMAM significantly increased cytotoxicity. Besides, the significant ROS level rising has been shown in the treated cells with MTX-PAMAM-Cur. Considering these findings, the co-delivery NC shows promise for additional in vitro investigations and possesses the capacity to function as an effective framework for the combined delivery of MTX and Cur in cervical cancer chemotherapy.

A nanotechnology driven effectual localized lung cancer targeting approaches using tyrosine kinases inhibitors: Recent progress, preclinical assessment, challenges, and future perspectives

The higher incidence and mortality rate among all populations worldwide explains the unmet solutions in the treatment of lung cancer. The evolution of targeted therapies using tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) has encouraged anticancer therapies. However, on-target and off-target effects and the development of drug resistance limited the anticancer potential of such targeted biologics. The advances in nanotechnology-driven-TKI embedded carriers that offered a new path toward lung cancer treatment. It is the inhalation route of administration known for its specific, precise, and efficient drug delivery to the lungs. The development of numerous TKI-nanocarriers through inhalation is proof of TKI growth. The future scopes involve using potential lung cancer biomarkers to achieve localized active cancer-targeting strategies. The adequate knowledge of in vitro absorption models usually helps establish better in vitro - in vivo correlation/extrapolation (IVIVC/E) to successfully evaluate inhalable drugs and drug products. The advanced in vitro and ex vivo lung tissue/ organ models offered better tumor heterogeneity, etiology, and microenvironment heterogeneity. The involvement of lung cancer organoids (LCOs), human organ chip models, and genetically modified mouse models (GEMMs) has resolved the challenges associated with conventional in vitro and in vivo models. To access potential inhalation-based drugtherapies, biological barriers, drug delivery, device-based challenges, and regulatory challenges must be encountered associated with their development. A proper understanding of material toxicity, size-based particle deposition at active disease sites, mucociliary clearance, phagocytosis, and the presence of enzymes and surfactants are required to achieve successful inhalational drug delivery (IDD). This article summarizes the future of lung cancer therapy using targeted drug-mediated inhalation using TKI.

Multifaceted role of erlotinib in various cancer: nanotechnology intervention, patent landscape, and advancements in clinical trials

Erlotinib (ELB) is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets the activity of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) protein found in both healthy and cancerous cells. It binds reversibly to the ATP-binding site of the EGFR tyrosine kinase. ELB was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2004 for advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treatment in patients who relapsed after at least one other therapy. It was authorized for use with gemcitabine in 2005 for the treatment of advanced pancreatic cancer. In addition to lung cancer, ELB has shown promising results in the treatment of other cancers, including breast, prostate, colon, pancreatic, cervical, ovarian, and head and neck cancers. However, its limited water solubility, as a BCS class II drug, presents biopharmaceutical problems. Nanoformulations have been developed to overcome these issues, including increased solubility, controlled release, enhanced stability, tumor accumulation, reduced toxicity, and overcoming drug resistance. In older patients, ELB management should involve individualized dosing based on age-related changes in drug metabolism and close monitoring for adverse effects. Regular assessments of renal and hepatic functions are essential. This review provides an overview of ELB's role of ELB in treating various cancers, its associated biopharmaceutical issues, and the latest developments in ELB-related nanotechnology interventions. It also covers ELB patents granted in previous years and the ongoing clinical trials.

Spray-Dried Nanolipid Powders for Pulmonary Drug Delivery: A Comprehensive Mini Review

Lung diseases have received great attention in the past years because they contribute approximately one-third of the total global mortality. Pulmonary drug delivery is regarded as one of the most appealing routes to treat lung diseases. It addresses numerous drawbacks linked to traditional dosage forms. It presents notable features, such as, for example, a non-invasive route, localized lung drug delivery, low enzymatic activity, low drug degradation, higher patient compliance, and avoiding first-pass metabolism. Therefore, the pulmonary route is commonly explored for delivering drugs both locally and systemically. Inhalable nanocarrier powders, especially, lipid nanoparticle formulations, including solid-lipid and nanostructured-lipid nanocarriers, are attracting considerable interest in addressing respiratory diseases thanks to their significant advantages, including deep lung deposition, biocompatibility, biodegradability, mucoadhesion, and controlled drug released. Spray drying is a scalable, fast, and commercially viable technique to produce nanolipid powders. This review highlights the ideal criteria for inhalable spray-dried SLN and NLC powders for the pulmonary administration route. Additionally, the most promising inhalation devices, known as dry powder inhalers (DPIs) for the pulmonary delivery of nanolipid powder-based medications, and pulmonary applications of SLN and NLC powders for treating chronic lung conditions, are considered.

Lipid Nanoparticles in Lung Cancer Therapy

This manuscript explores the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in addressing the pivotal challenges of lung cancer treatment, including drug delivery inefficacy and multi-drug resistance. LNPs have significantly advanced targeted therapy by improving the precision and reducing the systemic toxicity of chemotherapeutics such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel. This manuscript details the design and benefits of various LNP systems, including solid lipid-polymer hybrids, which offer controlled release and enhanced drug encapsulation. Despite achievements in reducing tumor size and enhancing survival, challenges such as manufacturing complexity, biocompatibility, and variable clinical outcomes persist. Future directions are aimed at refining targeting capabilities, expanding combinatorial therapies, and integrating advanced manufacturing techniques to tailor treatments to individual patient profiles, thus promising to transform lung cancer therapy through interdisciplinary collaboration and regulatory innovation.

Central composite design augmented quality-by-design-based systematic formulation of erlotinib hydrochloride-loaded chitosan-poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles

Aim: This study aimed to formulate erlotinib hydrochloride (ERT-HCL)-loaded chitosan (CS) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) using Quality-by-Design (QbD) to optimize critical quality attributes (CQAs). Materials & methods: Quality target product profile (QTPP) and CQAs were initially established. Based on L8-Taguchi screening and risk assessments, central composite design (CCD) design was used to optimize NPs. Results: ERT-HCL-loaded CS-PLGA NPs had a mean particle diameter, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency of 226.50 ± 1.62 d.nm, 27.66 ± 0.64 mV and 78.93 ± 1.94 %w/w, respectively. The NPs exhibited homogenous spherical morphology and sustained release for 72 h. Conclusion: Using systematic QbD approach, ERT-HCL was encapsulated in CS-PLGA NPs, optimizing CQAs. These findings propel future research for improved NSCLC treatment.

Nanocarrier-Mediated Drug Delivery via Inhalational Route for Lung Cancer Therapy: A Systematic and Updated Review

Lung cancer is one of the most severe lethal malignancies, with approximately 1.6 million deaths every year. Lung cancer can be broadly categorised into small and non-small-cell lung cancer. The traditional chemotherapy is nonspecific, destroys healthy cells and produces systemic toxicity; targeted inhalation drug delivery in conjunction with nanoformulations has piqued interest as an approach for improving chemotherapeutic drug activity in the treatment of lung cancer. Our aim is to discuss the impact of polymer and lipid-based nanocarriers (polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes, niosomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, etc.) to treat lung cancer via the inhalational route of drug administration. This review also highlights the clinical studies, patent reports and latest investigations related to lung cancer treatment through the pulmonary route. In accordance with the PRISMA guideline, a systematic literature search was carried out for published works between 2005 and 2023. The keywords used were lung cancer, pulmonary delivery, inhalational drug delivery, liposomes in lung cancer, nanotechnology in lung cancer, etc. Several articles were searched, screened, reviewed and included. The analysis demonstrated the potential of polymer and lipid-based nanocarriers to improve the entrapment of drugs, sustained release, enhanced permeability, targeted drug delivery and retention impact in lung tissues. Patents and clinical observations further strengthen the translational potential of these carrier systems for human use in lung cancer. This systematic review demonstrated the potential of pulmonary (inhalational) drug delivery approaches based on nanocarriers for lung cancer therapy.

Recent progress in drug delivery systems for tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer ranks as the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in both men and women worldwide. Despite the availability of diverse diagnostic and treatment strategies, it remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. The current treatment approaches for lung cancer involve the utilization of first generation (e.g., erlotinib, gefitinib) and second generation (e.g., afatinib) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These TKIs exert their effects by inhibiting a crucial enzyme called tyrosine kinase, which is responsible for cell survival signaling. However, their clinical effectiveness is hindered by limited solubility and oral bioavailability. Nanotechnology has emerged as a significant application in modern cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, including lipid, polymeric, hybrid, inorganic, dendrimer, and micellar nanoparticles, have been designed to enhance the bioavailability, stability, and retention of these drugs within the targeted lung area. Furthermore, these nanoparticle-based delivery systems offer several advantages, such as increased therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects and toxicity. This review focuses on the recent advancements in drug delivery systems for some of the most important TKIs, shedding light on their potential in improving lung cancer treatment.

Inhaled Medicines for Targeting Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Throughout the years, considerable progress has been made in methods for delivering drugs directly to the lungs, which offers enhanced precision in targeting specific lung regions. Currently, for treatment of lung cancer, the prevalent routes for drug administration are oral and parenteral. These methods, while effective, often come with side effects including hair loss, nausea, vomiting, susceptibility to infections, and bleeding. Direct drug delivery to the lungs presents a range of advantages. Notably, it can significantly reduce or even eliminate these side effects and provide more accurate targeting of malignancies. This approach is especially beneficial for treating conditions like lung cancer and various respiratory diseases. However, the journey towards perfecting inhaled drug delivery systems has not been without its challenges, primarily due to the complex structure and functions of the respiratory tract. This comprehensive review will investigate delivery strategies that target lung cancer, specifically focusing on non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-a predominant variant of lung cancer. Within the scope of this review, active and passive targeting techniques are covered which highlight the roles of advanced tools like nanoparticles and lipid carriers. Furthermore, this review will shed light on the potential synergies of combining inhalation therapy with other treatment approaches, such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy. The goal is to determine how these combinations might amplify therapeutic results, optimizing patient outcomes and overall well-being.

Immunogenic antitumor potential of Prakasine nanoparticles in zebrafish by gene expression stimulation

In this study, non-toxic mercury nanoparticle was synthesized as per "Prakash theory of metal drugs" and nanoparticle's characters has been demonstrated by employing several nanotechnological tools including XPS, XRD, EDAX. The size of the Prakasine nanoparticles (PRK-NP) ranged from 90-100 nm, confirmed using TEM, SEM, DLS and along with zeta potential of -29.5 mV before storage and -8.5 mV after storage. The FTIR provided information regarding the nanoparticle capping and functional groups. The study was further elaborated for determining PRK-NPs toxicity, genotoxicity, in-vivo toxicity, immunological anti-tumour activity, immunogenicity potential, gene expression profiling and confirmed by MTT and apoptosis assays, cancer zebrafish model studies and WBC proliferation assay. PRK-NPs revealed no cytotoxicity where cell viability was observed 99% in L6 mouse fibroblasts and 99% in MCF-7 cell lines. Also, the cell viability was to be 89.47% at a very high concentration of 320 µg/ml in HEK 293 cells. The PRK-NPs significantly reduced the tumour in zebrafish at dose of 90 μg/g by up regulating IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2-ITK, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α and IFN-γ, and down regulating IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and TGF-β compared to untreated controls without any adverse effects and toxicity. Thus, the current study beholds anticipation PRK-NPs may play a vital role in therapeutic.

Targeted EGFR Nanotherapy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Despite advances in treatment, the prognosis remains poor, highlighting the need for novel therapeutic strategies. The present review explores the potential of targeted epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) nanotherapy as an alternative treatment for NSCLC, showing that EGFR-targeted nanoparticles are efficiently taken up by NSCLC cells, leading to a significant reduction in tumor growth in mouse models. Consequently, we suggest that targeted EGFR nanotherapy could be an innovative treatment strategy for NSCLC; however, further studies are needed to optimize the nanoparticles and evaluate their safety and efficacy in clinical settings and human trials.

Targeting long non-coding RNAs as new modulators in anti-EGFR resistance mechanisms

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a cell surface protein that plays a vital role in regulating cell growth and division. However, certain tumors, such as colorectal cancer (CRC), can exhibit an overexpression of EGFR, resulting in uncontrolled cell growth and tumor progression. To address this issue, therapies targeting and inhibiting EGFR activity have been developed to suppress cancer growth. Nevertheless, resistance to these therapies poses a significant obstacle in cancer treatment. Recent research has focused on comprehending the underlying mechanisms contributing to anti-EGFR resistance and identifying new targets to overcome this striking challenge. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNA molecules that do not encode proteins but play pivotal roles in gene regulation and cellular processes. Emerging evidence suggests that lncRNAs may participate in modulating resistance to anti-EGFR therapies in CRC. Consequently, combining lncRNA targeting with the existing treatment modalities could potentially yield improved clinical outcomes. Illuminating the involvement of lncRNAs in anti-EGFR resistance mechanisms of cancer cells can provide valuable insights into the development of novel anti-EGFR therapies in several solid tumors.

Chitosan based sorafenib tosylate loaded magnetic nanoparticles: Formulation and in-vitro characterization

Biocompatible magnetic nanoparticles are used for various biomedical applications. This study reported the development of nanoparticles with magnetic properties by embedding magnetite particles in the drug-loaded, crosslinked matrix of chitosan. Sorafenib tosylate-loaded magnetic nanoparticles were prepared by a modified ionic-gelation method. Particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, and entrapment efficiency of nanoparticles were in the range of 95.6 ± 3.4 nm to 440.9 ± 7.3 nm, 12.8 ± 0.8 mV to 27.3 ± 1.1 mV, 0.289 ± 0.011 to 0.571 ± 0.011, and 54.36 ± 1.26 % to 79.67 ± 1.40 %, respectively. The XRD spectrum of formulation CMP-5 confirmed the amorphous nature of the loaded drug in nanoparticles. TEM image confirmed the spherical shape of nanoparticles. Atomic force microscopic image of formulation CMP-5 indicated a mean surface roughness of 10.3597 nm. The magnetization saturation of formulation CMP-5 was 24.74 emu/g. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed that formulation CMP-5's g-Lande's factor was 4.27, which was extremely near to the 4.30 (usual for Fe³⁺ ions). Residual paramagnetic Fe³⁺ ions may be responsible for paramagnetic origin. The data suggests superparamagnetic nature of particles. Formulations released 28.66 ± 1.22 % to 53.24 ± 1.95 % and 70.13 ± 1.72 % to 92.48 ± 1.32 % of the loaded drug after 24 h in pH 6.8 and pH 1.2, respectively. The IC₅₀ value of formulation CMP-5 was 54.75 μg/mL in HepG2 (human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines).

Lipid-Based Inhalable Micro- and Nanocarriers of Active Agents for Treating Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) afflicts about 2 million people worldwide, with both genetic (familial) and environmental factors contributing to its development and spread. The inadequacy of currently available therapeutic techniques, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, in addressing NSCLC is reflected in the very low survival rate of this disease. Therefore, newer approaches and combination therapy regimens are required to reverse this dismal scenario. Direct administration of inhalable nanotherapeutic agents to the cancer sites can potentially lead to optimal drug use, negligible side effects, and high therapeutic gain. Lipid-based nanoparticles are ideal agents for inhalable delivery owing to their high drug loading, ideal physical traits, sustained drug release, and biocompatibility. Drugs loaded within several lipid-based nanoformulations, such as liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticles, lipid-based micelles, etc., have been developed as both aqueous dispersed formulations as well as dry-powder formulations for inhalable delivery in NSCLC models in vitro and in vivo. This review chronicles such developments and charts the future prospects of such nanoformulations in the treatment of NSCLC.

Erlotinib-Loaded Dendrimer Nanocomposites as a Targeted Lung Cancer Chemotherapy

Lung cancer is the main cause of cancer-related mortality globally. Erlotinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, affecting both cancerous cell proliferation and survival. The emergence of oncological nanotechnology has provided a novel drug delivery system for erlotinib. The aims of this current investigation were to formulate two different polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer generations-generation 4 (G4) and generation 5 (G5) PAMAM dendrimer-to study the impact of two different PAMAM dendrimer formulations on entrapment by drug loading and encapsulation efficiency tests; to assess various characterizations, including particle size distribution, polydispersity index, and zeta potential; and to evaluate in vitro drug release along with assessing in situ human lung adenocarcinoma cell culture. The results showed that the average particle size of G4 and G5 nanocomposites were 200 nm and 224.8 nm, with polydispersity index values of 0.05 and 0.300, zeta potential values of 11.54 and 4.26 mV of G4 and G5 PAMAM dendrimer, respectively. Comparative in situ study showed that cationic G4 erlotinib-loaded dendrimer was more selective and had higher antiproliferation activity against A549 lung cells compared to neutral G5 erlotinib-loaded dendrimers and erlotinib alone. These conclusions highlight the potential effect of cationic G4 dendrimer as a targeting-sustained-release carrier for erlotinib.

The emerging nanomedicine-based technology for non-small cell lung cancer immunotherapy: how far are we from an effective treatment

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a prominent etiology of cancer-related mortality. The heterogeneous nature of this disease impedes its accurate diagnosis and efficacious treatment. Consequently, constant advancements in research are imperative in order to comprehend its intricate nature. In addition to currently available therapies, the utilization of nanotechnology presents an opportunity to enhance the clinical outcomes of NSCLC patients. Notably, the burgeoning knowledge of the interaction between the immune system and cancer itself paves the way for developing novel, emerging immunotherapies for treating NSCLC in the early stages of the disease. It is believed that with the novel engineering avenues of nanomedicine, there is a possibility to overcome the inherent limitations derived from conventional and emerging treatments, such as off-site drug cytotoxicity, drug resistance, and administration methods. Combining nanotechnology with the convergence points of current therapies could open up new avenues for meeting the unmet needs of NSCLC treatment.

Scalable Production and In Vitro Efficacy of Inhaled Erlotinib Nanoemulsion for Enhanced Efficacy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC)

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a global concern as one of the leading causes of cancer deaths. The treatment options for NSCLC are limited to systemic chemotherapy, administered either orally or intravenously, with no local chemotherapies to target NSCLC. In this study, we have prepared nanoemulsions of tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), erlotinib, using the single step, continuous manufacturing, and easily scalable hot melt extrusion (HME) technique without additional size reduction step. The formulated nanoemulsions were optimized and evaluated for their physiochemical properties, in vitro aerosol deposition behavior, and therapeutic activity against NSCLC cell lines both in vitro and ex vivo. The optimized nanoemulsion showed suitable aerosolization characteristics for deep lung deposition. The in vitro anti-cancer activity was tested against the NSCLC A549 cell line which exhibited 2.8-fold lower IC₅₀ for erlotinib-loaded nanoemulsion, as compared to erlotinib-free solution. Furthermore, ex vivo studies using a 3D spheroid model also revealed higher efficacy of erlotinib-loaded nanoemulsion against NSCLC. Hence, inhalable nanoemulsion can be considered as a potential therapeutic approach for the local lung delivery of erlotinib to NSCLC.

Recent Advances in Boosting EGFR Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors-Based Cancer Therapy

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) plays a key role in signal transduction pathways associated with cell proliferation, growth, and survival. Its overexpression and aberrant activation in malignancy correlate with poor prognosis and short survival. Targeting inhibition of EGFR by small-molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) is emerging as an important treatment model besides of chemotherapy, greatly reshaping the landscape of cancer therapy. However, they are still challenged by the off-targeted toxicity, relatively limited cancer types, and drug resistance after long-term therapy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of oral, pulmonary, and injectable drug delivery systems for enhanced and targeting TKI delivery to tumors and reduced side effects. Importantly, EGFR-TKI-based combination therapies not only greatly broaden the applicable cancer types of EGFR-TKI but also significantly improve the anticancer effect. The mechanisms of TKI resistance are summarized, and current strategies to overcome TKI resistance as well as the application of TKI in reversing chemotherapy resistance are discussed. Finally, we provide a perspective on the future research of EGFR-TKI-based cancer therapy.

Nanoparticle-containing lyophilized dry powder inhaler formulations optimized using central composite design with improved aerodynamic parameters and redispersibility

Objectives: The aim of this study was to improve the aerodynamic behavior and redispersibility of a lyophilized dry powder inhaler (DPI) formulation containing nanoparticles.Methods: Paclitaxel (PTX)-human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles were used as a model, and DPIs containing the nanoparticles were produced by lyophilization using different carriers and carrier ratios. A central composite design was employed to optimize the formulation. L-leucine and mannitol were chosen as independent variables, and mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD), emitted fraction, fine particle fraction (FPF), nanoparticle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential were selected as dependent variables.Results: The water content of DPIs was less than 5% for all DPIs. The cytotoxicity of the DPIs, determined using A549 cells, was due to PTX alone. Particle sizes of 204.3 ± 1.65 nm and 94.3-1353.0 nm were obtained before and after lyophilization, respectively. The developed method resulted in a reduction in the MMAD from 8.148 µm to 5.274 µm, an increase in the FPF from 17.63% to 33.60%, and an increase in the emitted fraction from 77.68% to 97.03%. The physico-chemical characteristics of the optimized formulation were also assessed.Conclusions: In conclusion, this study demonstrates that lyophilization can be used to produce nanoparticle-containing DPI formulations with improved redispersibility and aerodynamic properties.

Inhalable Formulations to Treat Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC): Recent Therapies and Developments

Cancer has been the leading cause of mortalities, with lung cancer contributing 18% to overall deaths. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for about 85% of all lung cancers. The primary form of therapy used to treat lung cancer still includes oral and systemic administration of drugs, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy. Some patients have to go through a regime of combination therapy. Despite being the only available form of therapy, their use is limited due to the adverse effects, toxicity, and development of resistance over prolonged use. This led to a shift and progressive evolution into using pulmonary drug delivery systems. Being a non-invasive method of drug-administration and allowing localized delivery of drugs to cancer cells, inhalable drug delivery systems can lead to lower dosing and fewer systemic toxicities over other conventional routes. In this way, we can increase the actual local concentration of the drug in lungs, which will ultimately lead to better antitumor therapy. Nano-based systems also provide additional diagnostic advantages during lung cancer treatment, including imaging, screening, and tracking. Regardless of the advantages, pulmonary delivery is still in the early stages of development and various factors such as pharmacology, immunology, and toxicology should be taken into consideration for the development of suitable inhalable nano-based chemotherapeutic drugs. They face numerous physiological barriers such as lung retention and efficacy, and could also lead to toxicity due to prolonged exposure. Nano-carriers with a sustained drug release mechanism could help in overcoming these challenges. This review article will focus on the various inhalable formulations for targeted drug delivery, including nano-based delivery systems such as lipids, liposome, polymeric and inorganic nanocarriers, micelles, microparticles and nanoaggregates for lung cancer treatment. Various devices used in pulmonary drug delivery loaded on various nano-carriers are also discussed in detail.

Insights into Lipid-Based Delivery Nanosystems of Protein-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors for Cancer Therapy

According to the WHO, cancer caused almost 10 million deaths worldwide in 2020, i.e., almost one in six deaths. Among the most common are breast, lung, colon and rectal and prostate cancers. Although the diagnosis is more perfect and spectrum of available drugs is large, there is a clear trend of an increase in cancer that ends fatally. A major advance in treatment was the introduction of gentler antineoplastics for targeted therapy-tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Although they have undoubtedly revolutionized oncology and hematology, they have significant side effects and limited efficacy. In addition to the design of new TKIs with improved pharmacokinetic and safety profiles, and being more resistant to the development of drug resistance, high expectations are placed on the reformulation of TKIs into various drug delivery lipid-based nanosystems. This review provides an insight into the history of chemotherapy, a brief overview of the development of TKIs for the treatment of cancer and their mechanism of action and summarizes the results of the applications of self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems, nanoemulsions, liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers used as drug delivery systems of TKIs obtained in vitro and in vivo.

Spray-Dried Inhalable Powder Formulations of Gentamicin Designed for Pneumonic Plague Therapy in a Mouse Model

Infection with Yersinia pestis (Y. pestis) may cause pneumonic plague, which is inevitably fatal without treatment. Gentamicin (GM), an aminoglycoside antibiotic, is a drug commonly used in the treatment of plague. However, it requires repeated intramuscular or intravenous administration. Pulmonary drug delivery is noninvasive, with the advantages of local targeting and reduced risk of systemic toxicity. In this study, GM powders were prepared using spray-drying technology. The powders displayed good physical and chemical properties and met the requirements for human pulmonary inhalation. The formulation of the powders was optimized using a 3² full factorial design. A formulation of 15% (w/w) of L-leucine was prepared, and the spray-drying process parameters using an inlet temperature of 120°C and a 15% pump rate were determined to produce the best powder. In addition, the optimized GM spray-dried powders were characterized in terms of morphology, crystallinity, powder fluidity, and aerodynamic particle size distribution analysis. In a mouse model of pneumonic plague, we compared the therapeutic effects among three administration routes, including subcutaneous injection, liquid atomization, and dry powder atomization. In conclusion, our data suggest that inhalation therapy with GM spray-dried powders is an effective treatment for pneumonic plague.

Co-Delivery of Erlotinib and Resveratrol via Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: A Synergistically Promising Approach for Cell Proliferation Prevention and ROS-Mediated Apoptosis Activation

Cancer treatments are always associated with various challenges, and scientists are constantly trying to find new therapies and methods. Erlotinib (ELT) is a well-known medicine against non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, treatments by ELT disrupt therapy due to drug resistance and pose severe challenges to patients. To achieve high-performance treatment, we gained nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) to evaluate synergistic anticancer effects of co-delivery of ELT and resveratrol (RES), a natural herbal derived phenol against NSCLC. NLCs are prepared via the hot homogenization method and characterized. In vitro cytotoxicity of formulations were evaluated on adenocarcinoma human alveolar basal epithelial (A549) cells. Prepared NLCs showed a narrow particle size (97.52 ±17.14 nm), negative zeta potential (-7.67 ± 4.55 mV), and high encapsulation efficiency (EE%) was measured for the prepared co-delivery system (EE% 89.5 ± 5.16 % for ELT and 90.1 ± 6.61 % for RES). In vitro outcomes from cell viability study (12.63 % after 48 h of treatment), apoptosis assay (85.50%.), cell cycle (40.00% arrest in G2-M), and western blotting investigations (decreasing of protein expression levels of survivin, Bcl-2, P-Caspase 3 P-caspase 9, and P-ERK 1/2, and additionally, increasing protein levels of BAX, P53, C-Caspase 3 and 9), DAPI staining, and colony formation assays showed the augment cytotoxic performances for co-delivery of ELT and RES loaded NLCs. Our study introduced the co-delivery of ELT and RES by NLCs as a novel strategy to elevate the efficacy of chemotherapeutics for NSCLC.

Poly (maleic anhydride-alt-1-octadecene)-based bioadhesive nanovehicles improve oral bioavailability of poor water-soluble gefitinib

The poor water solubility and inadequate oral bioavailability of gefitinib (Gef) remains a critical issue to achieve the therapeutic outcomes. Herein, we designed a poly (maleic anhydride-alt-1-octadecene) (PMA/C18) based lipid nanovehicle (PLN) to improve the intestinal absorption and oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble Gef. PLN was nanometer-sized particles, and Gef was dispersed in the PLN formulation as amorphous or molecular state. At 4 h of oral administration, the tissue concentration of Gef in duodenum, jejunum and ileum was profoundly enhanced 3.37-, 8.94- and 8.09-fold by PLN when comparing to the counterpart lipid nanovehicle. Moreover, the oral bioavailability of Gef was significantly enhanced 2.48-fold by the PLN formulation when comparing to the free drug suspension. Therefore, this study provides an encouraging bioadhesive delivery platform to improve the oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Recent advances in nanoscale targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer

Breast cancer is the second leading cause of death among women with high mortality rates worldwide. The exceptionally fast rate of metastasis, the emergence of drug-resistant mechanisms, and the occurrence of inadvertent side effects by cytotoxic chemotherapies often make conventional chemotherapy and immunotherapy treatments ineffective. Similar to other solid tumors, breast cancer can develop unique cellular and molecular characteristics forming an atypical permissive tumor microenvironment (TME). Due to the unique features of TME, cancer cells can further proliferate and coadapt with the stromal cells and evade immunosurveillance. aberrantly abundantly express various pieces of molecular machinery (the so-called oncomarkers) in favor of their survival, progression, metastasis, and further invasion. Such overexpressed oncomarkers can be exploited in the targeted therapy of cancer. Among breast cancer oncomarkers, epidermal growth factor receptors, particularly HER2, are considered as clinically valid molecular targets not only for the thorough diagnosis but also for the targeted therapy of the disease using different conventional and advanced nanoscale treatment modalities. This review aims to elaborate on the recent advances in the targeted therapy of HER2-positive breast cancer, and discuss various types of multifunctional nanomedicines/theranostics, and antibody-/aptamer-drug conjugates.

The nanocomposites designs of phytomolecules from medicinal and aromatic plants: promising anticancer-antiviral applications

Background

Nowadays, researchers are moving toward a herbal approach to cancer treatment because of the harmful effects of synthetic anti-tumor drugs. The evaluation of active compounds with plant origin may help in the remedy of human illnesses in the future. These active compounds have direct or indirect curative efficacies on difficult to cure diseases such as cancer. Investigation of nanoforms of these active compounds is one of the curious topics of the scientific community.

Main body

Saffron and its components obtained from Crocus sativa, essential oils obtained from lavender, Syzygium aromaticum called cloves and Beta vulgaris are known for their anticancer effects. Nano-drugs are designed to increase the anticancer activity of plant-derived drugs. Herbal extracts operate very great in the production of nanoparticles. The aim is to ensure that only the nano-drug is delivered to the tumor site. Furthermore, nanoparticles have hazardous effects when analyzed at elevated doses, but this issue can be doped together with plant extracts.

Short conclusions

The nanocomposites (graphene oxide, solid lipid nano and nanoemulsion) of phytomolecules obtained from saffron, clove, lavender and red beet may be effective in minimizing these toxic effects. In the near future, detecting the anticancer molecular mechanisms of these naturally derived compounds and nanocomposites could contribute to further cancer research. Apart from these, these compounds and its nanocomposites could have antiviral effects against today's threat covid-19 virus. Consequently, more promising anticancer and antiviral agents would be discovered.

Graphical abstract

Pulmonary Delivery of Anticancer Drugs via Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Lung Cancer: An Update

Lung cancer (LC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths, responsible for approximately 18.4% of all cancer mortalities in both sexes combined. The use of systemic therapeutics remains one of the primary treatments for LC. However, the therapeutic efficacy of these agents is limited due to their associated severe adverse effects, systemic toxicity and poor selectivity. In contrast, pulmonary delivery of anticancer drugs can provide many advantages over conventional routes. The inhalation route allows the direct delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to the target LC cells with high local concertation that may enhance the antitumor activity and lead to lower dosing and fewer systemic toxicities. Nevertheless, this route faces by many physiological barriers and technological challenges that may significantly affect the lung deposition, retention, and efficacy of anticancer drugs. The use of lipid-based nanocarriers could potentially overcome these problems owing to their unique characteristics, such as the ability to entrap drugs with various physicochemical properties, and their enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for passive targeting. Besides, they can be functionalized with different targeting moieties for active targeting. This article highlights the physiological, physicochemical, and technological considerations for efficient inhalable anticancer delivery using lipid-based nanocarriers and their cutting-edge role in LC treatment.

Optimization of Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipidic Carriers as Promising Delivery for Gefitinib: Characterization and Invitro Evaluation

Background:

Response surface methodology is a unique tool for the optimization of Solid lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured lipid carriers by developing the relationship between dependent and independent variables and exploring their interactions.

Methods:

Central Composite Design and Box Benkhen Design was used to develop optimized formulations of Gefitinib [GEF] Solid Lipid Nanoparticles [SLN] and Nanostructured Lipidic Carriers [NLC]. In the design matrix, the independent variables chosen were the amount of Solid Lipid, Liquid Lipid, and Surfactant and dependent variables were Particle Size and Poly Dispersity Index.

Result:

The GEF-SLN under optimized conditions gave rise to Particle size (187.9 nm ± 1.15), PDI (0.318 ± 0.006), %EE (95.38%±0.14), Zeta Potential (-8.75 mv ±0.18) and GEF-NLC under optimized conditions gave rise to Particle size (188.6 nm± 1.12), PDI (0.395± 0.004), %EE (97.46%± 0.33), Zeta Potential (-5.72 mv± 0.04) respectively. SEM of the Freeze-dried optimized lipidic carriers showed spherical particles. The in vitro experiments proved that Gefitinib in the lipidic carriers is released gradually throughout 24 h.

Conclusion:

This study showed that the response surface methodology could be efficiently applied for the modeling of GEF-SLN & GEF-NLC.

The Effect of Single-Dose Ougan Juice Application on the Pharmacokinetics of Erlotinib

The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of single-dose Ougan (Citrus reticulata cv. Suavissima) juice application on the pharmacokinetics of erlotinib in vivo. Twelve Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into the Ougan juice and control groups (n = 6 each). The rats were given a single dose of 1 mL/100 g Ougan juice or 1 mL/100 g normal saline (NS) by intragastric administration, followed by a single oral administration of 20 mg/kg erlotinib. The plasma concentration of erlotinib in rats was determined using ultra performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Erlotinib-d6 was used as the internal standard for chromatographic analysis on the UPLC BEH C18 analysis column (2.1 mm × 50 mm, 1.7 μm). The mobile phase was composed of acetonitrile and 0.1% formic acid eluting by gradient. Different pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of erlotinib were calculated. The Ougan juice promoted the absorption of erlotinib and reduced the clearance of the drug. The area under the curve of erlotinib in the single-dose Ougan juice pretreatment group was approximately 1.87 times higher, and the maximum blood concentration (Cmax) was approximately 1.34 times higher than that in the control group. The mean residence time of erlotinib in the Ougan juice group was larger, and the clearance rate was smaller than those in the control group; the difference was statistically significant (P < 0.05). Ougan juice affected the PK spectrum of erlotinib in rats by improving the bioavailability of the drug and significantly increasing its plasma concentration.

Lysine Decorated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles of Epirubicin for Cancer Targeting and Therapy

Purpose: Cancer is an example of the most important growing diseases in human society and scientists are trying to treat it without considerable side effects on patient’s health. Solid lipids are colloidal nanoparticles that were used in drug delivery due to their several advantages.

Methods: In this work, surface modified targeted solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were fabricated by nano-homogenizer using tripalmitin glyceride and stearic acid as lipid constituents. The size of nanoparticles and morphological evaluations were surveyed using particle size analyzer, scanning electron microscopy; Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC).

Results: The particle size of 148.5 and appropriate polydispersity index were achieved for lipid nanoparticles with an entrapment efficiency of 86.1%. The FT-IR analysis confirmed the coupling of lysine to the free functional group of SLNs. DSC proved the conjugation of amino acid to the surface of carriers. The in vitro epirubicin (EPI) release test exhibited the further controlled release phenomenon for the lysine conjugated nanoparticles. The cytotoxicity assay showed lower IC50 of lysine conjugated SLNs of EPI on the investigated cell line.

Conclusion: These studies showed that the fabricated targeted carrier has a very remarkable anticancer effect on breast cancer cell lines in comparison with pure drug.

Perspectives of nano-carrier drug delivery systems to overcome cancer drug resistance in the clinics

Advanced cancer is still considered an incurable disease because of its metastatic spread to distal organs and progressive gain of chemoresistance. Even though considerable treatment progress and more effective therapies have been achieved over the past years, recurrence in the long-term and undesired side effects are still the main drawbacks of current clinical protocols. Moreover, a majority of chemotherapeutic drugs are highly hydrophobic and need to be diluted in organic solvents, which cause high toxicity, in order to reach effective therapeutic dose. These limitations of conventional cancer therapies prompted the use of nanomedicine, the medical application of nanotechnology, to provide more effective and safer cancer treatment. Potential of nanomedicines to overcome resistance, ameliorate solubility, improve pharmacological profile, and reduce adverse effects of chemotherapeutical drugs is thus highly regarded. Their use in the clinical setting has increased over the last decade. Among the various existing nanosystems, nanoparticles have the ability to transform conventional medicine by reducing the adverse effects and providing a controlled release of therapeutic agents. Also, their small size facilitates the intracellular uptake. Here, we provide a closer review of clinical prospects and mechanisms of action of nanomedicines to overcome drug resistance. The significance of specific targeting towards cancer cells is debated as well.

Molecular Targeting of Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor (VEGFR)

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) are two extensively studied membrane-bound receptor tyrosine kinase proteins that are frequently overexpressed in many cancers. As a result, these receptor families constitute attractive targets for imaging and therapeutic applications in the detection and treatment of cancer. This review explores the dynamic structure and structure-function relationships of these two growth factor receptors and their significance as it relates to theranostics of cancer, followed by some of the common inhibition modalities frequently employed to target EGFR and VEGFR, such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), antibodies, nanobodies, and peptides. A summary of the recent advances in molecular imaging techniques, including positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and optical imaging (OI), and in particular, near-IR fluorescence imaging using tetrapyrrolic-based fluorophores, concludes this review.

Preparation and Safety Evaluation of Topical Simvastatin Loaded NLCs for Vitiligo

Purpose: Vitiligo is a long-term common autoimmune disease in which growing patches of skin lose their color. There is no FDA-approved treatment for vitiligo. However, recent studies have demonstrated an immunosuppressive effect on vitiligo lesions in mouse models by simvastatin. A topical formulation was prepared containing simvastatin-loaded nano lipid carriers (simNLCs) for vitiligo treatment followed by evaluating their physicochemical characteristics and clinical safety. Methods: Both the lipid phase and the aqueous phase were heated to 75°C separately, and then simvastatin was dispersed in the lipid phase added to the aqueous phase. The mixture was homogenized for 1 minute, then for Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) formation, the emulsion was sonicated using a probe sonicator. The simNLCs produced were evaluated for drug entrapment, particle size and morphology, zeta potential, polydispersity index, viscosity, drug content, in vitro drug release, in vivo skin safety test, and long-term stability studies. Results: Dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry techniques proved the formation of a stable formulation containing spherical particles with nanoscale size. The drug entrapment efficiency and the drug-loading capacity were determined to be 99.27% and 3.9%, respectively. Human safety results indicated that adding simvastatin to lipid nanoparticles did not cause any changes to skin biophysical parameters. Conclusion: The preparation method of simNLC developed in this study is a suitable method, and the nanoparticles fabricated were safe with acceptable long-term stability and drug entrapment.

Nanomedicine of tyrosine kinase inhibitors

Recent progress in nanomedicine and targeted therapy brings new breeze into the field of therapeutic applications of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These drugs are known for many side effects due to non-targeted mechanism of action that negatively impact quality of patients' lives or that are responsible for failure of the drugs in clinical trials. Some nanocarrier properties provide improvement of drug efficacy, reduce the incidence of adverse events, enhance drug bioavailability, helps to overcome the blood-brain barrier, increase drug stability or allow for specific delivery of TKIs to the diseased cells. Moreover, nanotechnology can bring new perspectives into combination therapy, which can be highly efficient in connection with TKIs. Lastly, nanotechnology in combination with TKIs can be utilized in the field of theranostics, i.e. for simultaneous therapeutic and diagnostic purposes. The review provides a comprehensive overview of advantages and future prospects of conjunction of nanotransporters with TKIs as a highly promising approach to anticancer therapy.

Nano targeted Therapies Made of Lipids and Polymers have Promising Strategy for the Treatment of Lung Cancer

The introduction of nanoparticles made of polymers, protein, and lipids as drug delivery systems has led to significant progress in modern medicine. Since the application of nanoparticles in medicine involves the use of biodegradable, nanosized materials to deliver a certain amount of chemotherapeutic agents into a tumor site, this leads to the accumulation of these nanoencapsulated agents in the right region. This strategy minimizes the stress and toxicity generated by chemotherapeutic agents on healthy cells. Therefore, encapsulating chemotherapeutic agents have less cytotoxicity than non-encapsulation ones. The purpose of this review is to address how nanoparticles made of polymers and lipids can successfully be delivered into lung cancer tumors. Lung cancer types and their anatomies are first introduced to provide an overview of the general lung cancer structure. Then, the rationale and strategy applied for the use of nanoparticle biotechnology in cancer therapies are discussed, focusing on pulmonary drug delivery systems made from liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles. Many nanoparticles fabricated in the shape of liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles are summarized in our review, with a focus on the encapsulated chemotherapeutic molecules, ligand-receptor attachments, and their targets. Afterwards, we highlight the nanoparticles that have demonstrated promising results and have been delivered into clinical trials. Recent clinical trials that were done for successful nanoparticles are summarized in our review.

Spray drying as an efficient route for synthesis of silica nanoparticles-sodium alginate biohybrid drug carrier of doxorubicin

Biohybrids (a combination of biological material and inorganic nanoparticles) offer a number of advantages like improved functionality over conventional materials.Thus, to understand the practical application of biohybrids as drug carriers, a biohybrid drug carrier of colloidal silica nanoparticles (NP)-sodium alginate loaded with doxorubicin (Dox-biohybrid) was synthesized by evaporation induced self-assembly (EISA) using spray drying technique. Further, the morphology, size and interactions between various components of the biohybrid were studied through SEM, DLS and FTIR techniques. The drug loading efficiency, release profile, cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of Dox-biohybrid was investigated and compared with free Dox. The drug loading efficiencies of Dox-biohybrid, Dox-silica NP and Dox-sodium alginate were 93.7 %, 96.4 % and 88.3 % respectively. In vitro release study showed a slow release of entrapped Dox from Dox-biohybrid as compared to other carriers. This release was also pH-responsive with significantly higher cumulative drug release at pH 5.5 (cancer microenvironment) in comparison to pH 7.4 (physiological conditions). The empty biohybrid carrier did not show cytotoxicity to normal mouse lymphocytes upto a concentration of 25 μg/mL which was used further. The uptake of Dox from Dox-biohybrid by A549 cells was more than 2fold as compared to uptake from free Dox. in vitro viability assay revealed that treatment of lung carcinoma A549 cells with Dox-biohybrid resulted in 50 % loss of cell viability at 500 nM, compared to only 12 % loss with free Dox. Thus, we report the synthesis of a novel biohybrid drug delivery system by means of spray drying process that has promising applications in cancer treatment.

Targeted drug therapy in nonsmall cell lung cancer: clinical significance and possible solutions-part II (role of nanocarriers)

INTRODUCTION

Nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80-85% of the cases of lung cancer. The conventional therapeutic effective dosage forms used to treat NSCLC are associated with rigid administration schedules, adverse effects, and may be associated with acquired resistance to therapy. Nanocarriers may provide a suitable alternative to regular formulations to overcome inherent drawbacks and provide better treatment modalities for the patient.

AREAS COVERED

The article explores the application of drug loaded nanocarriers for lung cancer treatment. Drug-loaded nanocarriers can be modified to achieve controlled delivery at the desired tumor infested site. The type of nanocarriers employed are diverse based on polymers, liposomes, metals and a combination of two or more different base materials (hybrids). These may be designed for systemic delivery or local delivery to the lung compartment (via inhalation).

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocarriers can improve pharmacokinetics of the drug payload by improving its delivery to the desired location and can reduce associated systemic toxicities. Through nanocarriers, a wide variety of therapeutics can be administered and targeted to the cancerous site. Some examples of the utilities of nanocarriers are codelivery of drugs, gene delivery, and delivery of other biologics. Overall, the nanocarriers have promising potential in improving therapeutic efficacy of drugs used in NSCLC.

Lipid Drug Carriers for Cancer Therapeutics: An Insight into Lymphatic Targeting, P-gp, CYP3A4 Modulation and Bioavailability Enhancement

In the treatment of cancer, chemotherapy plays an important role though the efficacy of anti-cancer drug administered orally is limited, due to their poor solubility in physiological medium, inability to cross biological membrane, high Para-glycoprotein (P-gp) mediated drug efflux, and pre-systemic metabolism. These all factors cumulatively reduce drug exposure at the target site leading to multidrug resistance (MDR). Lipid based carriers systems has been explored to overcome solubility and permeability related issues of anti-cancer drugs. The lipid based formulations have also been reported to circumvent the effect of P-gp and CYP3A4. Further long chain triglycerides (LCT) has shown their ability to access Lymphatic route over Medium Chain Triglycerides, as the former has been extensively used for targeting anti-cancer drugs at proliferating cells through lymphatic route. Therefore this review tries to reflect the usefulness of lipid based drug carriers systems (viz. liposome, solid lipid nanoparticle, nano-lipid carriers, self-emulsifying, lipidic pro-drugs) in targeting lymphatic system and overcoming issues related to solubility and permeability of anti-cancer drugs. Moreover, we have also tried to reflect how critically lipid based carriers are important in maximizing therapeutic safety and efficacy of anti-cancer drugs.

Formulation and In Vitro Evaluation of Casein Nanoparticles as Carrier for Celecoxib

Purpose: The objective of this work was to formulate casein (CAS) nanocarriers for the dissolution enhancement of poorly water soluble drug celecoxib (CLXB).

Methods: The CLXB loaded CAS nanocarriers viz., nanoparticles, reassembled CAS micelles and nanocapsules were prepared using sodium caseinate (SOD-CAS) as a carrier to enhance the solubility of CLXB. The prepared formulations were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, percentage entrapment efficiency, and surface morphology for the selection of best formulation. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder diffraction study was used to for the confirmation of encapsulation of CLXB. Further,in vitro drug dissolution, ex-vivo permeation studies on chicken ileum and stability studies were carried out.

Results: The CLXB loaded casein nanoparticles (CNP) (batch A2) showed a particle size diameter 216.1 nm, polydispersity index 0.422 with percentage entrapment efficiency of 90.71% and zeta potential of -24.6 mV. Scanning electron microscopy of suspension confirmed globular shape of CNP. Thein vitro release data of optimized batch followed non Fickian diffusion mechanism. The ex vivo permeation studies on chicken ileum of CLXB loaded CNP showed permeation through mucous membrane as compared to pure CLXB. The apparent permeability of best selected freeze dried CLXB loaded CNP (batch A2) was higher and gradually increased from 0.90 mg/cm² after 10 min to a maximum of 1.95 mg/cm² over the subsequent 90 min. A higher permeation was recorded at each time point than that of the pure CLXB.

Conclusion: The study explored the potential of CAS as a carrier for solubility enhancement of poorly water soluble drugs.