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Adhikari S, Hunter E, Vossenberg JVD, Thomas J. A review of latrine front-end characteristics associated with microbial infection risk; reveals a lack of pathogen density data. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2023; 254:114261. [PMID: 37734133 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Unsafe sanitation accounts for an estimated 898,000 global deaths annually. The faecal pathogen transmission pathway is complex with several possible routes. Latrine front-end characteristics and usage behaviours are one key transmission pathway for microbial pathogens, however, there has not yet been a synthesis of the available research. This review aims to compare the microbial infection risks with latrine front-end components including any quantified microbial densities within the household latrines. This review was conducted with no restriction on the geographical location of the research. Of 118 studies reviewed, only ten (8%) have quantified the microbial density inside the household latrines compared to 109 (92%) measuring the infection risks. The reported risks were most frequent for specific bacterial (n = 34), and helminths infections (n = 32) compared to diarrhoea (n = 23), combined (n = 15), protozoan (n = 4), and viral (n = 4) infections. The infections risk decreased for using latrines lying at a higher position on the sanitation ladder (for example flush latrines) compared to those lying lower (for example pit latrines). The trend was similar for using floor materials that were easier to clean and less favourable for pathogen survival inside the latrines (for example, concrete as opposed to earth). Faecal coliforms were reported highest on the surface of the squat pan (743 CFU/cm2) of pour-flush latrines and helminths on earth floors of pit latrines (1.5 eggs and larvae per gram of soil). Irrespective of latrine type and its position on the sanitation ladder, a dirty latrine, evidenced by a visible lack of cleanliness, significantly increased the risk for all infections. This study recommends that effective microbial infection risk reduction in latrines can be gained efficiently by ensuring washable surfaces and consistent cleaning practices. Future studies should include more rigorous measurements of microbial densities in various latrine types incorporating the different front-end components and usage behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabita Adhikari
- School of Civil Engineering, The University of Sydney, Australia.
| | - Erin Hunter
- Department of Public Health Sciences, College of Behavioural, Social and Health Sciences, Clemson University, United States.
| | - Jack van de Vossenberg
- Water Supply, Sanitation and Environmental Engineering Department, IHE Delft Institute of Water Education, the Netherlands.
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Carstens CK, Salazar JK, Sharma SV, Chan W, Darkoh C. Evaluation of the kitchen microbiome and food safety behaviors of predominantly low-income families. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:987925. [PMID: 36246211 PMCID: PMC9557297 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.987925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens in the domestic environment present a risk to residents, particularly among susceptible populations. However, the impact of consumer demographic characteristics and food handling methods on kitchen microbiomes is not fully understood. The domestic kitchen bacterial communities of ten predominantly low-income families in Houston, TX, were assessed in conjunction with a cross-sectional food safety survey to evaluate differences in household and surface-specific microbiomes and bacterial foodborne pathogen presence. Three kitchen surfaces within each household, including the sink drain, the refrigerator handle, and the counter, were environmentally sampled and metataxonomically evaluated via targeted 16S rRNA sequencing. Disposable dish sponges were also acquired and examined. Results indicated that alpha diversity did not vary by the households, sampling locations, or demographic characteristics evaluated. Significant differences in beta diversity were observed among the bacterial communities of five pairs of households and between refrigerator handle and disposable dish sponge microbiomes. A total of 89 unique bacterial foodborne pathogens were identified across surface types. Each household contained at least one contaminated surface, and the most common bacterial foodborne pathogens identified were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. All parents reported washing their hands before meal preparation, washing fresh fruits and vegetables, and washing cutting boards with soap after use to prepare raw animal proteins. Gaps in food safety behaviors identified included a lack of serious concern for food contamination with germs and inappropriate handwashing, food handling, and cleaning behaviors. The number of unique bacterial foodborne pathogens identified within households was significantly higher among households whose respondent parent reported that they did not consider food contamination with germs to be a serious food safety problem (median: 41.0 species) compared to households whose respondent parent did consider food contamination to be a serious food safety problem (median: 3.0 species; p value = 0.0218). These results demonstrate that domestic kitchen taxonomic abundance profiles vary according to household and surface type. Data suggest that low-income consumers may be at risk of foodborne pathogen exposure from contaminated home kitchen surfaces, and that food safety attitudes may directly contribute to this hazard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina K. Carstens
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Joelle K. Salazar
- Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Bedford Park, IL, United States
| | - Shreela V. Sharma
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Wenyaw Chan
- Department of Biostatistics and Data Science, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Charles Darkoh
- Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics and Environmental Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, United States,Microbiology and Infectious Diseases Program, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, United States,*Correspondence: Charles Darkoh,
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3
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Al-Omari AW, Ramadan Matter I, Hussein Almola A. Molecular study of Enterobacteriaceae bacterium isolated from dishwashers. BIONATURA 2022. [DOI: 10.21931/rb/2022.07.03.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The Enterobacteriaceae family is considered one of the medically essential families in which there is a continuous change in classification, and new species are added to it. In this study, we obtained a novel strain registered in the NCBI under Enterobacteriaceae bacterium strain PRL 4-2, with the accession number MW540823, and the isolate considered unclassified Enterobacteriaceae. The isolate was obtained from dishwashers, which is a mine for many new species and strains due to the unique environmental conditions of this habitat, fluctuation in temperature, use of high temperatures, utilization of cleaning materials as well as humidity and the presence of organic materials, especially in case of neglect of cleaning. The isolate was characterized by its slow growth on culture media and its ability to form biofilms and possess some virulence factors. Its resistance to antibiotics was also studied, as it showed resistance to the antibiotics used in this study. The oddness for this strain is that it showed a different diagnosis when using VITEK (The VITEK 2 system has everything healthcare laboratories need for fast, accurate microbial identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing.) compared to diagnosis using 16S rRNA. As for the taxonomic tree, the closest species was Enterobacter sp. Strain 188. This study supplements a few other studies of this novel species, isolated from different environments. These researches can be integrated to give an itinerary for other studies on the new species and their different capabilities.
Keywords. Enterobacteriaceae bacterium, dishwasher, Enterobacteriaceae bacterium PRL-2, Enterobacter sp., biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisha W. Al-Omari
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
| | | | - Alaa Hussein Almola
- Department of Biology, College of Sciences, University of Mosul, Mosul, Iraq
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The Presence of Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens in Residential Buildings: A Literature Review. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14071129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Opportunistic premise plumbing pathogens (OPPP) are microorganisms that are native to the plumbing environment and that present an emerging infectious disease problem. They share characteristics, such as disinfectant resistance, thermal tolerance, and biofilm formation. The colonisation of domestic water systems presents an elevated health risk for immune-compromised individuals who receive healthcare at home. The literature that has identified the previously described OPPPs (Aeromonas spp., Acinetobacter spp., Helicobacter spp., Legionella spp., Methylobacterium spp., Mycobacteria spp., Pseudomonas spp., and Stenotrophomonas spp.) in residential drinking water systems were systematically reviewed. By applying the Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines, 214 studies were identified from the Scopus and Web of Science databases, which included 30 clinical case investigations. Tap components and showerheads were the most frequently identified sources of OPPPs. Sixty-four of these studies detected additional clinically relevant pathogens that are not classified as OPPPs in these reservoirs. There was considerable variation in the detection methods, which included traditional culturing and molecular approaches. These identified studies demonstrate that the current drinking water treatment methods are ineffective against many waterborne pathogens. It is critical that, as at-home healthcare services continue to be promoted, we understand the emergent risks that are posed by OPPPs in residential drinking water. Future research is needed in order to provide consistent data on the prevalence of OPPPs in residential water, and on the incidence of waterborne homecare-associated infections. This will enable the identification of the contributing risk factors, and the development of effective controls.
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Maillard JY, Bloomfield SF, Courvalin P, Essack SY, Gandra S, Gerba CP, Rubino JR, Scott EA. Reducing antibiotic prescribing and addressing the global problem of antibiotic resistance by targeted hygiene in the home and everyday life settings: A position paper. Am J Infect Control 2020; 48:1090-1099. [PMID: 32311380 PMCID: PMC7165117 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2020.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) continues to threaten global health. Although global and national AMR action plans are in place, infection prevention and control is primarily discussed in the context of health care facilities with home and everyday life settings barely addressed. As seen with the recent global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, everyday hygiene measures can play an important role in containing the threat from infectious microorganisms. This position paper has been developed following a meeting of global experts in London, 2019. It presents evidence that home and community settings are important for infection transmission and also the acquisition and spread of AMR. It also demonstrates that the targeted hygiene approach offers a framework for maximizing protection against colonization and infections, thereby reducing antibiotic prescribing and minimizing selection pressure for the development of antibiotic resistance. If combined with the provision of clean water and sanitation, targeted hygiene can reduce the circulation of resistant bacteria in homes and communities, regardless of a country's Human Development Index (overall social and economic development). Achieving a reduction of AMR strains in health care settings requires a mirrored reduction in the community. The authors call upon national and international policy makers, health agencies, and health care professionals to further recognize the importance of targeted hygiene in the home and everyday life settings for preventing and controlling infection, in a unified quest to tackle AMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Yves Maillard
- Cardiff School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK; International Scientific Forum on Home Hygiene, Somerset, UK.
| | | | | | - Sabiha Y Essack
- Antimicrobial Research Unit, College of Health Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sumanth Gandra
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Charles P Gerba
- Departments of Soil, Water and Environmental Science and Environmental Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Joseph R Rubino
- Research & Development, Home Hygiene, Lysol/Harpic, Reckitt Benckiser LLC., One Philips Parkway, Montvale, NJ, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Scott
- College of Natural, Behavioral and Health Sciences, Simmons University, Boston, MA, USA
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Zupančič J, Turk M, Črnigoj M, Ambrožič Avguštin J, Gunde-Cimerman N. The dishwasher rubber seal acts as a reservoir of bacteria in the home environment. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:300. [PMID: 31856722 PMCID: PMC6924085 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-019-1674-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In modern lifestyles, people make their everyday tasks easier by using household appliances, for example dishwashers. Previous studies showed massive contamination of dishwasher rubber seals with fungi, thus bacterial community, able to survive under harsh conditions, remain undetermined. Methods Bacteria that colonise the extreme environment of household dishwasher rubber seals were investigated using cultivation-dependent and metagenomic approaches. All bacterial isolates were tested for resistance to seven selected antibiotics. Same time bacterial diversity of tap water, connected to the dishwashers was investigated. Results All 30 dishwashers investigated were colonised by various bacteria. Cultivation approaches resulted in 632 bacterial isolates in total, belonging to four phyla, eight classes, 40 genera and 74 species. The majority were Gram-positive, as solely Firmicutes (dominated by the Bacillus cereus group) and Actinobacteria. Gammaproteobacteria were primarily represented by Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. Metagenomic assessment of the bacterial biodiversity of the dishwasher rubber seals confirmed the predominance of Gram-positive bacteria, as primarily Actinobacteria, followed by Proteobacteria dominated by Gammaproteobacteria, and by pathogenic species such as Escherichia sp., Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas sp., Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Enterobacter sp.. Metagenomic assessment of bacterial biodiversity in the tap water connected to dishwashers revealed predominance of Gram-negative bacteria, in particular Proteobacteria, mainly represented by Tepidimonas sp.. Actinobacteria showed low numbers while no Firmicutes were detected in the tap water. The bacterial diversity of tap water was also lower, 23 genera compared to 39 genera on dishwasher rubber seals. Only 13 out of 49 genera identified by metagenomics approach was found in both environments, of those Gordonia was enriched while half of 13 genera were depleted in dishwashers compared to tap water. Conclusions These data indicate that colonisation of dishwasher rubber seals probably depends primarily on the bacterial input from the dirty vessels, and much less on the bacteria in the tap water. Based on the antibiotic resistance data, the dishwasher rubber seal bacterial isolates do not represent a serious threat for the spread of antibiotic resistance into the household environment. Nevertheless dishwashers cannot be ignored as potential sources of human infections, in particular for immuno-compromised individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerneja Zupančič
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Martina Turk
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Miha Črnigoj
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | | | - Nina Gunde-Cimerman
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.,Centre of Excellence for Integrated Approaches in Chemistry and Biology of Proteins (CIPKeBiP), Ljubljana, Slovenia
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7
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Microbial Diversity and Putative Opportunistic Pathogens in Dishwasher Biofilm Communities. Appl Environ Microbiol 2018; 84:AEM.02755-17. [PMID: 29330184 PMCID: PMC5812945 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02755-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Extreme habitats are not only limited to natural environments, but also exist in manmade systems, for instance, household appliances such as dishwashers. Limiting factors, such as high temperatures, high and low pHs, high NaCl concentrations, presence of detergents, and shear force from water during washing cycles, define microbial survival in this extreme system. Fungal and bacterial diversity in biofilms isolated from rubber seals of 24 different household dishwashers was investigated using next-generation sequencing. Bacterial genera such as Pseudomonas, Escherichia, and Acinetobacter, known to include opportunistic pathogens, were represented in most samples. The most frequently encountered fungal genera in these samples belonged to Candida, Cryptococcus, and Rhodotorula, also known to include opportunistic pathogenic representatives. This study showed how specific conditions of the dishwashers impact the abundance of microbial groups and investigated the interkingdom and intrakingdom interactions that shape these biofilms. The age, usage frequency, and hardness of incoming tap water of dishwashers had significant impact on bacterial and fungal community compositions. Representatives of Candida spp. were found at the highest prevalence (100%) in all dishwashers and are assumed to be one of the first colonizers in recently purchased dishwashers. Pairwise correlations in tested microbiomes showed that certain bacterial groups cooccur, as did the fungal groups. In mixed bacterial-fungal biofilms, early adhesion, contact, and interactions were vital in the process of biofilm formation, where mixed complexes of bacteria and fungi could provide a preliminary biogenic structure for the establishment of these biofilms. IMPORTANCE Worldwide demand for household appliances, such as dishwashers and washing machines, is increasing, as is the number of immunocompromised individuals. The harsh conditions in household dishwashers should prevent the growth of most microorganisms. However, our research shows that persisting polyextremotolerant groups of microorganisms in household appliances are well established under these unfavorable conditions and supported by the biofilm mode of growth. The significance of our research is in identifying the microbial composition of biofilms formed on dishwasher rubber seals, how diverse abiotic conditions affect microbiota, and which key microbial members were represented in early colonization and contamination of dishwashers, as these appliances can present a source of domestic cross-contamination that leads to broader medical impacts.
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Maritz JM, Sullivan SA, Prill RJ, Aksoy E, Scheid P, Carlton JM. Filthy lucre: A metagenomic pilot study of microbes found on circulating currency in New York City. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175527. [PMID: 28384336 PMCID: PMC5383295 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Paper currency by its very nature is frequently transferred from one person to another and represents an important medium for human contact with—and potential exchange of—microbes. In this pilot study, we swabbed circulating $1 bills obtained from a New York City bank in February (Winter) and June (Summer) 2013 and used shotgun metagenomic sequencing to profile the communities found on their surface. Using basic culture conditions, we also tested whether viable microbes could be recovered from bills. Results Shotgun metagenomics identified eukaryotes as the most abundant sequences on money, followed by bacteria, viruses and archaea. Eukaryotic assemblages were dominated by human, other metazoan and fungal taxa. The currency investigated harbored a diverse microbial population that was dominated by human skin and oral commensals, including Propionibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Micrococcus luteus. Other taxa detected not associated with humans included Lactococcus lactis and Streptococcus thermophilus, microbes typically associated with dairy production and fermentation. Culturing results indicated that viable microbes can be isolated from paper currency. Conclusions We conducted the first metagenomic characterization of the surface of paper money in the United States, establishing a baseline for microbes found on $1 bills circulating in New York City. Our results suggest that money amalgamates DNA from sources inhabiting the human microbiome, food, and other environmental inputs, some of which can be recovered as viable organisms. These monetary communities may be maintained through contact with human skin, and DNA obtained from money may provide a record of human behavior and health. Understanding these microbial profiles is especially relevant to public health as money could potentially mediate interpersonal transfer of microbes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia M. Maritz
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, United States of America
| | - Steven A. Sullivan
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, United States of America
| | - Robert J. Prill
- Accelerated Discovery Lab, IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, California, United States of America
| | - Emre Aksoy
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, United States of America
| | - Paul Scheid
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, United States of America
| | - Jane M. Carlton
- Center for Genomics and Systems Biology, Department of Biology, New York University, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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James C, Onarinde BA, James SJ. The Use and Performance of Household Refrigerators: A Review. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2016; 16:160-179. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian James
- Food Refrigeration & Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC); The Grimsby Inst of Further & Higher Education (GIFHE); Nuns Corner Grimsby North East Lincolnshire DN34 5BQ U.K
| | - Bukola A. Onarinde
- College of Sciences, Natl Centre for Food Manufacturing; Univ of Lincoln; Park Rd., Holbeach Spalding PE12 7PT U.K
| | - Stephen J. James
- Food Refrigeration & Process Engineering Research Centre (FRPERC); The Grimsby Inst of Further & Higher Education (GIFHE); Nuns Corner Grimsby North East Lincolnshire DN34 5BQ U.K
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10
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France MT, Remold SK. Interference Competition Among Household Strains of Pseudomonas. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 72:821-830. [PMID: 26276409 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-015-0652-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial species exhibit biogeographical patterns like those observed in larger organisms. The distribution of bacterial species is driven by environmental selection through abiotic and biotic factors as well dispersal limitations. We asked whether interference competition, a biotic factor, could explain variability in habitat use by Pseudomonas species in the human home. To answer this question, we screened almost 8000 directional, pairwise interactions between 89 Pseudomonas strains including members of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa (n = 29), Pseudomonas fluorescens (n = 21), and Pseudomonas putida (n = 39) species groups for the presence of killing. This diverse set of Pseudomonas strains includes those isolated from several different habitats within the home environment and includes combinations of strains that were isolated from different spatial scales. The use of this strain set not only allowed us to analyze the commonality and phylogenetic scale of interference competition within the genus Pseudomonas but also allowed us to investigate the influence of spatial scale on this trait. Overall, the probability of killing was found to decrease with increasing phylogenetic distance, making it unlikely that interference competition accounts for previously observed differential habitat use among Pseudomonas species and species groups. Strikingly, conspecific P. aeruginosa killing accounted for the vast majority of the observed killing, and this killing was found to differ across the habitat type and spatial scale of the strains' isolation. These data suggest that interference competition likely plays a large role in the within-species dynamics of P. aeruginosa but not other household Pseudomonas species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T France
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 3051, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA.
- Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive MS 3051, Moscow, ID, 83844, USA.
| | - Susanna K Remold
- Department of Biology, University of Louisville, 137 Life Sciences Building, Louisville, KY, 40292, USA
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Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas fluorescens Species Group Recovery from Human Homes Varies Seasonally and by Environment. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0127704. [PMID: 26023929 PMCID: PMC4449118 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0127704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
By shedding light on variation in time as well as in space, long-term biogeographic studies can help us define organisms' distribution patterns and understand their underlying drivers. Here we examine distributions of Pseudomonas in and around 15 human homes, focusing on the P. putida and P. fluorescens species groups. We describe recovery from 10,941 samples collected during up to 8 visits per home, occurring on average 2.6 times per year. We collected a mean of 141 samples per visit, from sites in most rooms of the house, from the surrounding yards, and from human and pet occupants. We recovered Pseudomonas in 9.7% of samples, with the majority of isolates being from the P. putida and P. fluorescens species groups (approximately 62% and 23% of Pseudomonas samples recovered respectively). Although representatives of both groups were recovered from every season, every house, and every type of environment sampled, recovery was highly variable across houses and samplings. Whereas recovery of P. putida group was higher in summer and fall than in winter and spring, P. fluorescens group isolates were most often recovered in spring. P. putida group recovery from soils was substantially higher than its recovery from all other environment types, while higher P. fluorescens group recovery from soils than from other sites was much less pronounced. Both species groups were recovered from skin and upper respiratory tract samples from healthy humans and pets, although this occurred infrequently. This study indicates that even species that are able to survive under a broad range of conditions can be rare and variable in their distributions in space and in time. For such groups, determining patterns and causes of stochastic and seasonal variability may be more important for understanding the processes driving their biogeography than the identity of the types of environments in which they can be found.
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12
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Lopez GU, Kitajima M, Sherchan SP, Sexton JD, Sifuentes LY, Gerba CP, Reynolds KA. Impact of disinfectant wipes on the risk of Campylobacter jejuni infection during raw chicken preparation in domestic kitchens. J Appl Microbiol 2015; 119:245-52. [PMID: 25939813 DOI: 10.1111/jam.12834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Revised: 04/19/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS In the present study, we conducted a quantitative microbial risk assessment forecasting the exposure to Campylobacter jejuni contaminated surfaces during preparation of chicken fillets and how using a disinfectant-wipe intervention to clean a contaminated work area decreases the risk of infection following the preparation of raw chicken fillet in a domestic kitchen. METHODS AND RESULTS Using a Monte Carlo simulation of the risk of transferring Camp. jejuni strain A3249, from various surfaces to hands and subsequently transferring it to the mouth was forecasted. The use of a disinfectant-wipe intervention to disinfect contaminated surface area was also assessed. Several assumptions were used as input parameters in the classical Beta-Poisson model to determine the risk of infection. The disinfectant-wipe intervention reduced the risk of Camp. jejuni infection by 2-3 orders on all fomites. CONCLUSIONS The use of disinfectant wipes after the preparation of raw chicken meat reduces the risk of Camp. jejuni infections. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY This risk assessment shows that the use of disinfectant wipes to decontaminate surface areas after chicken preparation reduces the annual risk of Camp. jejuni infections up to 99·2%, reducing the risk from 2 : 10 to 2 : 1000.
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Affiliation(s)
- G U Lopez
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - M Kitajima
- Center for Environmental Sensing and Modeling, Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology, Singapore, Singapore
| | - S P Sherchan
- Department of Public Health, California State University-Fresno, Fresno, CA, USA
| | - J D Sexton
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - L Y Sifuentes
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - C P Gerba
- Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - K A Reynolds
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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Purdy-Gibson ME, France M, Hundley TC, Eid N, Remold SK. Pseudomonas aeruginosa in CF and non-CF homes is found predominantly in drains. J Cyst Fibros 2014; 14:341-6. [PMID: 25443472 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcf.2014.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection is a major contributor to progressive lung disease. While colonizing strains are thought to be primarily environmental, which environments are important in lung colonization is unclear. METHODS We took 11,674 samples from a broad range of sites over 3-8 visits to homes with (7) and without (8) CF patients. RESULTS Twenty-eight percent of sampled drains yielded P. aeruginosa at least once, and a general mixed linear model estimated that 6.3% of samples from drains yield P. aeruginosa. This is more than eight times the estimated recovery from any other type of household environment. CONCLUSIONS These findings implicate drains as important potential sources of P. aeruginosa infection. They suggest that maximizing P. aeruginosa control efforts for drains would reduce exposure with minimal extra burden to CF patients and families.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Purdy-Gibson
- University of Louisville, Dept. of Biology, Louisville, KY 40292, United States
| | - M France
- University of Idaho, Dept. of Biological Sciences and Institute for Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Studies, Moscow, ID 83844, United States
| | - T C Hundley
- University of Louisville, Dept. of Biology, Louisville, KY 40292, United States
| | - N Eid
- University of Louisville Medical School, Dept. of Pediatric Pulmonology, Louisville, KY 40292, United States
| | - S K Remold
- University of Louisville, Dept. of Biology, Louisville, KY 40292, United States.
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14
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Affiliation(s)
- R A Stein
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA. ,
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15
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Catellani P, Miotti Scapin R, Alberghini L, Radu I, Giaccone V. Levels of microbial contamination of domestic refrigerators in Italy. Food Control 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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16
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Jeon YS, Chun J, Kim BS. Identification of household bacterial community and analysis of species shared with human microbiome. Curr Microbiol 2013; 67:557-63. [PMID: 23743600 PMCID: PMC3790245 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-013-0401-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Microbial populations in indoor environments, where we live and eat, are important for public health. Various bacterial species reside in the kitchen, and refrigerators, the major means of food storage within kitchens, can be a direct source of food borne illness. Therefore, the monitoring of microbiota in the refrigerator is important for food safety. We investigated and compared bacterial communities that reside in the vegetable compartment of the refrigerator and on the seat of the toilet, which is recognized as highly colonized by microorganisms, in ten houses using high-throughput sequencing. Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes were predominant in refrigerator and toilet samples. However, Proteobacteria was more abundant in the refrigerator, and Firmicutes was more abundant in the toilet. These household bacterial communities were compared with those of human skin and gut to identify potential sources of household bacteria. Bacterial communities from refrigerators and toilets shared more species in common with human skin than gut. Opportunistic pathogens, including Propionibacterium acnes, Bacteroides vulgatus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis, were identified as species shared with human skin and gut microbiota. This approach can provide a general background of the household microbiota and a potential method of source-tracking for public health purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoon-Seong Jeon
- ChunLab, Inc., Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongsik Chun
- ChunLab, Inc., Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bong-Soo Kim
- ChunLab, Inc., Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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17
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Campylobacteriosis in New Zealand: A new twist to the tale? Part two (the consumer and the regulator). Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2013.03.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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18
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Oxford J, Berezin EN, Courvalin P, Dwyer D, Exner M, Jana LA, Kaku M, Lee C, Letlape K, Low DE, Madani TA, Rubino JR, Saini N, Schoub BD, Signorelli C, Tierno PM, Zhong X. An international survey of bacterial contamination and householders’ knowledge, attitudes and perceptions of hygiene. J Infect Prev 2013. [DOI: 10.1177/1757177413483346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This prospective, multinational study was conducted in 20 homes in eight cities or regions in different countries to determine the level of microbiological contamination of common surfaces and items, and investigate the attitudes and perceptions of householders towards cleaning and hygiene. Environmental Health Practitioners took eight standardised swabs in each home. The swabs were cultured for a range of micro-organisms. Householders ( n=160) were also interviewed regarding their cleaning habits and perceptions of hygiene. Overall, 28% of surfaces or items tested in the study had ‘moderate bacterial growth’ or ‘heavy bacterial growth’. Kitchen cloths were the most contaminated items, with 86% having moderate bacterial growth or heavy bacterial growth; kitchen taps were the second most contaminated items, with 52% having moderate bacterial growth or heavy bacterial growth. High proportions (>50%) of kitchen cloths contained coliforms, Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas spp. The visual appearance of surfaces and items frequently (30%) did not correspond to their level of contamination with micro-organisms. The majority of householders (65%) cleaned to make the house ‘look clean, smell nice and remove germs’; however, householders’ perceptions of the cleanliness of their homes frequently did not correspond to microbiological reality. In conclusion, further research and education are needed regarding hygiene in the home.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Oxford
- Blizard Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, 4 Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Eitan N Berezin
- Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas, Santa Casa, Sao Paulo, Brazil
- Infectious Diseases Society, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Dominic Dwyer
- CIDMLS, ICPMR Westmead Hospital and University of Sydney, Westmead, Australia
| | - Martin Exner
- Institute of Hygiene and Public Health, University of Bonn, Germany
| | | | - Mitsuo Kaku
- Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | | | - Kgosi Letlape
- Africa Medical Association, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Tshepang Trust, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Donald E. Low
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Tariq Ahmed Madani
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | | | | | - Barry D. Schoub
- University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Carlo Signorelli
- University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- National Board of the Italian Society of Hygiene, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Xuhui Zhong
- Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
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20
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Flores GE, Bates ST, Caporaso JG, Lauber CL, Leff JW, Knight R, Fierer N. Diversity, distribution and sources of bacteria in residential kitchens. Environ Microbiol 2012; 15:588-96. [PMID: 23171378 PMCID: PMC5100818 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 09/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/12/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria readily colonize kitchen surfaces, and the exchange of microbes between humans and the kitchen environment can impact human health. However, we have a limited understanding of the overall diversity of these communities, how they differ across surfaces and sources of bacteria to kitchen surfaces. Here we used high-throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to explore biogeographical patterns of bacteria across > 80 surfaces within the kitchens of each of four households. In total, 34 bacterial and two archaeal phyla were identified, with most sequences belonging to the Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. Genera known to contain common food-borne pathogens were low in abundance but broadly distributed throughout the kitchens, with different taxa exhibiting distinct distribution patterns. The most diverse communities were associated with infrequently cleaned surfaces such as fans above stoves, refrigerator/freezer door seals and floors. In contrast, the least diverse communities were observed in and around sinks, which were dominated by biofilm-forming Gram-negative lineages. Community composition was influenced by conditions on individual surfaces, usage patterns and dispersal from source environments. Human skin was the primary source of bacteria across all kitchen surfaces, with contributions from food and faucet water dominating in a few specific locations. This study demonstrates that diverse bacterial communities are widely distributed in residential kitchens and that the composition of these communities is often predictable. These results also illustrate the ease with which human- and food-associated bacteria can be transferred in residential settings to kitchen surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto E Flores
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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21
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Davis MF, Iverson SA, Baron P, Vasse A, Silbergeld EK, Lautenbach E, Morris DO. Household transmission of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and other staphylococci. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2012; 12:703-16. [PMID: 22917102 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(12)70156-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Although the role of pets in household transmission of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has been examined previously, only minor attention has been given to the role of the abiotic household environment independent of, or in combination with, colonisation of pets and human beings to maintain transmission cycles of MRSA within the household. This report reviews published work about household transmission of S aureus and other staphylococci and describes contamination of household environmental surfaces and colonisation of pets and people. Household microbial communities might have a role in transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes and could be reservoirs for recolonisation of people, although additional research is needed regarding strategies for decontamination of household environments. Household-based interventions should be developed to control recurrent S aureus infections in the community, and coordination between medical and veterinary providers could be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan F Davis
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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22
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Flores GE, Bates ST, Knights D, Lauber CL, Stombaugh J, Knight R, Fierer N. Microbial biogeography of public restroom surfaces. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28132. [PMID: 22132229 PMCID: PMC3223236 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We spend the majority of our lives indoors where we are constantly exposed to bacteria residing on surfaces. However, the diversity of these surface-associated communities is largely unknown. We explored the biogeographical patterns exhibited by bacteria across ten surfaces within each of twelve public restrooms. Using high-throughput barcoded pyrosequencing of the 16 S rRNA gene, we identified 19 bacterial phyla across all surfaces. Most sequences belonged to four phyla: Actinobacteria, Bacteriodetes, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria. The communities clustered into three general categories: those found on surfaces associated with toilets, those on the restroom floor, and those found on surfaces routinely touched with hands. On toilet surfaces, gut-associated taxa were more prevalent, suggesting fecal contamination of these surfaces. Floor surfaces were the most diverse of all communities and contained several taxa commonly found in soils. Skin-associated bacteria, especially the Propionibacteriaceae, dominated surfaces routinely touched with our hands. Certain taxa were more common in female than in male restrooms as vagina-associated Lactobacillaceae were widely distributed in female restrooms, likely from urine contamination. Use of the SourceTracker algorithm confirmed many of our taxonomic observations as human skin was the primary source of bacteria on restroom surfaces. Overall, these results demonstrate that restroom surfaces host relatively diverse microbial communities dominated by human-associated bacteria with clear linkages between communities on or in different body sites and those communities found on restroom surfaces. More generally, this work is relevant to the public health field as we show that human-associated microbes are commonly found on restroom surfaces suggesting that bacterial pathogens could readily be transmitted between individuals by the touching of surfaces. Furthermore, we demonstrate that we can use high-throughput analyses of bacterial communities to determine sources of bacteria on indoor surfaces, an approach which could be used to track pathogen transmission and test the efficacy of hygiene practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gilberto E. Flores
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Scott T. Bates
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Dan Knights
- Department of Computer Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Christian L. Lauber
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Jesse Stombaugh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Rob Knight
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Noah Fierer
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
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23
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Sinclair RG, Gerba CP. Microbial contamination in kitchens and bathrooms of rural Cambodian village households. Lett Appl Microbiol 2010; 52:144-9. [PMID: 21198693 PMCID: PMC7197759 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2010.02978.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To quantify microbial contamination on kitchen and bathroom surfaces (fomites) in rural Cambodian homes and to compare these concentrations to similar data from the United States and Japan. METHODS AND RESULTS This study monitored the numbers of faecal coliforms (i.e. thermotolerant coliforms), total coliforms, Escherichia coli and heterotrophic plate count bacteria on household surfaces in a rural village of Cambodia. Faecal coliform levels in Cambodia were highest on moist locations such as the plastic ladle used for sink water, the toilet seat surface and the cutting board surface with 100-fold higher levels of faecal coliform bacteria than E. coli and 100-fold higher levels of faecal coliforms than the US and Japanese studies. CONCLUSIONS A single public health intervention barrier, such as an improved latrine, is only partially effective for household sanitation. For complete sanitation, multiple environmental barriers may be necessary. These barriers occur in a house constructed with easily washable surfaces, a chlorinated water distribution system, house climate control and cleaning product availability. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Results of this study can be used to emphasize the importance of increasing household environmental sanitation barriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- R G Sinclair
- Department of Environmental Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, USA.
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24
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Egert M, Schmidt I, Bussey K, Breves R. A glimpse under the rim--the composition of microbial biofilm communities in domestic toilets. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 108:1167-74. [PMID: 19735319 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04510.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM To determine the microbial composition of biofilms in domestic toilets by molecular means. METHODS AND RESULTS Genomic DNA was extracted from six biofilm samples originating from households around Düsseldorf, Germany. While no archaeal 16S rRNA or fungal ITS genes were detected by PCR, fingerprinting of bacterial 16S rRNA genes revealed a diverse community in all samples. These communities also differed considerably between the six biofilms. Using the Ribosomal Database Project (RDP) classifier tool, 275 cloned 16S rRNA gene sequences were assigned to 11 bacterial phyla and 104 bacterial genera. Only 15 genera (representing 121 sequences affiliated with Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Planctomycetes and Proteobacteria) occurred in at least half of the samples or contributed at least 10% of the sequences in a single biofilm. These sequences were defined as 'typical' for toilet biofilms, and they were examined in more detail. On a 97% sequence similarity level, these sequences represented 56 species. Twelve of these were closely related to well-described bacterial species, and only two of them were categorized as belonging to risk group 2. No 16S rRNA genes of typical faecal bacteria were detected in any sample. Virtually all 'typical' clones were found to be closely related to bacteria or to sequences obtained from environmental sources, implicating that the flushing water is the main source of recruitment. CONCLUSION In view of the great diversity of mostly yet-uncultured bacteria and the considerable differences between individual toilets, very general strategies appear to be most suited for the removal and prevention of toilet biofilms. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY For the first time, a molecular fingerprinting and cloning approach was used to monitor the species composition in biofilm samples taken from domestic toilets. Knowledge about the microbial composition of biofilms in domestic toilets is a prerequisite for developing and evaluating strategies for their removal and prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Egert
- Microbiology Department, Henkel AG & Co. KGaA, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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25
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Redmond EC, Griffith CJ. The importance of hygiene in the domestic kitchen: Implications for preparation and storage of food and infant formula. Perspect Public Health 2009; 129:69-76. [DOI: 10.1177/1757913908101604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aims: Public concerns relating to food safety remain high with most attention focused on manufactured foods and those served in catering operations. However, previous data have suggested that the home may be the main location for cases of food-borne disease. The aim of this paper is to review the microbiological risks associated with hygiene in the domestic kitchen related to food and infant formula safety. Methods: Compared to other food sectors, research on consumer food hygiene, domestic food-handling and preparation of infant formula is relatively understudied. Behavioural and microbiological studies of consumer hygiene and the domestic kitchen have been reviewed to incorporate research relating to the safety of infant formula. Results: Incidence data identify the home as an important location for acquiring food-borne disease. The domestic kitchen can be used for a variety of purposes and is often contaminated with potentially harmful micro-organisms such as Campylobacter and Salmonella. Consumer hygiene habits have frequently been found to be inadequate and relate both to microbial growth, survival and cross-contamination. Due to the reduced immune response of infants, the activities associated with the preparation of infant formula and associated bottles and equipment are of particular concern. Conclusions: Cumulatively, the data suggest that more effort should be made to educate the consumer in food hygiene, especially when the kitchen is used to reconstitute infant formula. This information needs to be provided in a form appropriate for use by consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth C Redmond
- Food Research and Consultancy Unit, School of Health Sciences, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, Western Avenue, Cardiff, CF5 2YB, UK, eredmond@uwic. ac.uk
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Jackson V, Blair I, McDowell D, Kennedy J, Bolton D. The incidence of significant foodborne pathogens in domestic refrigerators. Food Control 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2005.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Ojima M, Toshima Y, Koya E, Ara K, Tokuda H, Kawai S, Kasuga F, Ueda N. Hygiene measures considering actual distributions of microorganisms in Japanese households. J Appl Microbiol 2003; 93:800-9. [PMID: 12392526 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01746.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Effective household hygiene measures require that sources of bacterial contamination and the places to which contamination spreads be carefully identified. Therefore, a study was performed to examine the distribution of microorganisms throughout ordinary households in Japan, which has its own unique customs of daily life and food preparation. METHODS AND RESULTS Using the stamping method, samples were taken from 100 different places and items in each of 86 households. This study found kitchens/dining rooms to have the greatest level of microbial contamination and bathrooms, the next highest level. Toilets (water closets) were found to have an unexpectedly low level of bacterial contamination. The largest bacterial counts were found on items such as drain traps, dish-washing sponges, counter towels, sinks, dish-washing tubs, and bathroom sponges. CONCLUSIONS It is necessary to carefully identify both the items that can become instruments for spreading bacterial contamination and the places that easily become subject to secondary contamination, and then to take timely and effective disinfection/sanitizing measures. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The data gathered in this study will be very valuable for anticipating the pathways over which bacteria are transported and prioritizing disinfection targets, to make effective disinfection possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ojima
- Kao Life Style Research Institute, Kao Corporation, Tokyo, Japan
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