Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction

Advances, challenges, and opportunities for food safety analysis in the isothermal nucleic acid amplification/CRISPR-Cas12a era

Global food safety stands out as a prominent public concern, affecting populations worldwide. The recurrent challenge of food safety incidents reveals the need for a robust inspection framework. In recent years, the integration of isothermal nucleic acid amplification with CRISPR-Cas12a techniques has emerged as a promising tool for molecular detection of food hazards, presenting next generation of biosensing for food safety detection. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current state of research on the synergistic application of isothermal nucleic acid amplification and CRISPR-Cas12a technology in the field of food safety. This innovative combination not only enriches the analytical tools, but also improving assay performance such as sensitivity and specificity, addressing the limitations of traditional methods. The review summarized various detection methodologies by the integration of isothermal nucleic acid amplification and CRISPR-Cas12a technology for diverse food safety concerns, including pathogenic bacterium, viruses, mycotoxins, food adulteration, and genetically modified foods. Each section elucidates the specific strategies employed and highlights the advantages conferred. Furthermore, the paper discussed the challenges faced by this technology in the context of food safety, offering insightful discussions on potential solutions and future prospects.

A high-throughput gut-on-chip platform to study the epithelial responses to enterotoxins

Enterotoxins are a type of toxins that primarily affect the intestines. Understanding their harmful effects is essential for food safety and medical research. Current methods lack high-throughput, robust, and translatable models capable of characterizing toxin-specific epithelial damage. Pressing concerns regarding enterotoxin contamination of foods and emerging interest in clinical applications of enterotoxins emphasize the need for new platforms. Here, we demonstrate how Caco-2 tubules can be used to study the effect of enterotoxins on the human intestinal epithelium, reflecting toxins' distinct pathogenic mechanisms. After exposure of the model to toxins nigericin, ochratoxin A, patulin and melittin, we observed dose-dependent reductions in barrier permeability as measured by TEER, which were detected with higher sensitivity than previous studies using conventional models. Combination of LDH release assays and DRAQ7 staining allowed comprehensive evaluation of toxin cytotoxicity, which was only observed after exposure to melittin and ochratoxin A. Furthermore, the study of actin cytoskeleton allowed to assess toxin-induced changes in cell morphology, which were only caused by nigericin. Altogether, our study highlights the potential of our Caco-2 tubular model in becoming a multi-parametric and high-throughput tool to bridge the gap between current enterotoxin research and translatable in vivo models of the human intestinal epithelium.

27-Hydroxycholesterol/liver X receptor/apolipoprotein E mediates zearalenone-induced intestinal immunosuppression: A key target potentially linking zearalenone and cancer

Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycotoxin that extensively contaminates food and feed, posing a significant threat to public health. However, the mechanisms behind ZEN-induced intestinal immunotoxicity remain unclear. In this study, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed to ZEN at a dosage of 5 mg/kg/day b.w. for a duration of 14 days. The results demonstrated that ZEN exposure led to notable pathological alterations and immunosuppression within the intestine. Furthermore, ZEN exposure caused a significant reduction in the levels of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) and liver X receptor (LXR) (P < 0.05). Conversely, it upregulated the levels of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) markers (P < 0.05) and decreased the presence of 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-HC) in the intestine (P < 0.05). It was observed that ApoE or LXR agonists were able to mitigate the immunosuppressive effects induced by ZEN. Additionally, a bioinformatics analysis highlighted that the downregulation of ApoE might elevate the susceptibility to colorectal, breast, and lung cancers. These findings underscore the crucial role of the 27-HC/LXR/ApoE axis disruption in ZEN-induced MDSCs proliferation and subsequent inhibition of T lymphocyte activation within the rat intestine. Notably, ApoE may emerge as a pivotal target linking ZEN exposure to cancer development.

Degradation of deoxynivalenol by a microbial consortia C1 from duck intestine

Deoxynivalenol (DON), one of the most widespread mycotoxins in food and feed, poses a persistent health threat to humans and farm animals, and is difficult to eliminate. The utilization of the biotransformation mechanism by microorganisms to detoxify DON is a promising strategy. Although individual strains are capable of DON degradation, their isolation and purification are challenging and time-consuming. Recently, the microbial consortia concept has been proposed, owing to their ability to perform more complex tasks and are more tolerant to environmental changes than individual strains or species. In this study, the novel microbial consortia C1 that could efficiently convert DON to de-epoxy DON (DOM-1) was screened from the cecum contents of ducks. After 24 h anaerobic incubation, 100 μg/ml DON was completely degraded by C1. In vitro, C1 can effectively degrade DON in corn steep liquor (CSL) with an efficiency of 49.44% within 14 days. Furthermore, C1 effectively alleviated the DON poisoning in mice. After C1 treatment, the serum DON level decreased by 40.39%, and the reduction in serum total protein and albumin levels were mitigated. Additionally, C1 is effective in protecting the mouse liver against 5 mg/kg DON. These findings suggest that C1 could be a promising DON biological detoxifier and provide novel microbial resources for preventing DON contamination.

Insights into the intestinal toxicity of foodborne mycotoxins through gut microbiota: A comprehensive review

Mycotoxins, which are fungal metabolites, pose a significant global food safety concern by extensively contaminating food and feed, thereby seriously threatening public health and economic development. Many foodborne mycotoxins exhibit potent intestinal toxicity. However, the mechanisms underlying mycotoxin-induced intestinal toxicity are diverse and complex, and effective prevention or treatment methods for this condition have not yet been established in clinical and animal husbandry practices. In recent years, there has been increasing attention to the role of gut microbiota in the occurrence and development of intestinal diseases. Hence, this review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the intestinal toxicity mechanisms of six common foodborne mycotoxins. It also explores novel toxicity mechanisms through the "key gut microbiota-key metabolites-key targets" axis, utilizing multiomics and precision toxicology studies with a specific focus on gut microbiota. Additionally, we examine the potential beneficial effects of probiotic supplementation on mycotoxin-induced toxicity based on initial gut microbiota-mediated mycotoxicity. This review offers a systematic description of how mycotoxins impact gut microbiota, metabolites, and genes or proteins, providing valuable insights for subsequent toxicity studies of mycotoxins. Furthermore, it lays a theoretical foundation for preventing and treating intestinal toxicity caused by mycotoxins and advancing food safety practices.

Zearalenone-14-glucoside specifically promotes dysplasia of Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue: A natural product for constructing intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia model

INTRODUCTION

Zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G) is a modified mycotoxin that widely contaminates food across the world. Our preliminary experiment showed that Z14G degrades to zearalenone (ZEN) in the intestine exerting toxicity. Notably, oral administration of Z14G in rats induces intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the mechanism of Z14G intestinal toxicity and how it differs from ZEN toxicity. We conducted a precise toxicology study on the intestine of rats exposed to Z14G and ZEN using multi-omics technology.

METHODS

Rats were exposed to ZEN (5 mg/kg), Z14G-L (5 mg/kg), Z14G-H (10 mg/kg), and pseudo germ free (PGF)-Z14G-H (10 mg/kg) for 14 days. Histopathological studies were performed on intestines from each group and compared. Metagenomic, metabolomic, and proteomic analyses were performed on rat feces, serum, and intestines, respectively.

RESULTS

Histopathological studies showed that Z14G exposure resulted in dysplasia of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT) compared to ZEN exposure. The elimination of gut microbes in the PGF-Z14G-H group alleviated or eliminated Z14G-induced intestinal toxicity and GALT dysplasia. Metagenomic analysis revealed that Z14G exposure significantly promoted the proliferation of Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides compared to ZEN. Metabolomic analysis showed that Z14G exposure significantly reduced bile acid, while proteomic analysis found that Z14G exposure significantly reduced the expression of C-type lectins compared to ZEN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experimental results and previous research suggest that Z14G is hydrolyzed to ZEN by Bifidobacterium and Bacteroides promoting their co-trophic proliferation. This leads to inactivation of lectins by hyperproliferative Bacteroides when ZEN caused intestinal involvement, resulting in abnormal lymphocyte homing and ultimately GALT dysplasia. It is noteworthy that Z14G is a promising model drug to establish rat models of intestinal nodular lymphatic hyperplasia (INLH), which is of great significance for studying the pathogenesis, drug screening and clinical application of INLH.

Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main types of B trichothecenes, and it causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable challenges to food and feed safety globally each year. This review investigates the global hazards of DON, describes the occurrence of DON in food and feed in different countries, and systematically uncovers the mechanisms of the various toxic effects of DON. For DON pollution, many treatments have been reported on the degradation of DON, and each of the treatments has different degradation efficacies and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism. These treatments include physical, chemical, and biological methods and mitigation strategies. Biodegradation methods include microorganisms, enzymes, and biological antifungal agents, which are of great research significance in food processing because of their high efficiency, low environmental hazards, and drug resistance. And we also reviewed the mechanisms of biodegradation methods of DON, the adsorption and antagonism effects of microorganisms, and the different chemical transformation mechanisms of enzymes. Moreover, nutritional mitigation including common nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and microelements) and plant extracts was discussed in this review, and the mitigation mechanism of DON toxicity was elaborated from the biochemical point of view. These findings help explore various approaches to achieve the best efficiency and applicability, overcome DON pollution worldwide, ensure the sustainability and safety of food processing, and explore potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of DON in humans and animals.

Zearalenone Exposure Disrupts STAT-ISG15 in Rat Colon: A Potential Linkage between Zearalenone and Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Zearalenone (ZEN), a prevalent mycotoxin contaminating food and known for its intestinal toxicity, has been suggested as a potential risk factor for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), although the exact relationship between ZEN exposure and IBD remains unclear. In this study, we established a rat model of colon toxicity induced by ZEN exposure to investigate the key targets of ZEN-induced colon toxicity and explore the underlying connection between ZEN exposure and IBD. Histological staining of the rat colon revealed significant pathological changes resulting from ZEN exposure (p < 0.01). Furthermore, the proteomic analysis demonstrated a notable upregulation of protein expression levels, specifically STAT2 (0.12 ± 0.0186), STAT6 (0.36 ± 0.0475) and ISG15 (0.43 ± 0.0226) in the rat colon (p < 0.05). Utilizing bioinformatics analysis, we combined ZEN exposure and IBD clinical sample databases to reveal that ZEN exposure may increase the risk of IBD through activation of the STAT-ISG15 pathway. This study identified novel targets for ZEN-induced intestinal toxicity, providing the basis for further study of ZEN exposure to IBD.

A biochemical, theoretical and immunohistochemical study comparing the therapeutic efficacy of curcumin and taurine on T-2 toxin induced hepatotoxicity in rats

Introduction: Foodborne trichothecene T-2 Toxin, is a highly toxic metabolite produced by Fusarium species contaminating animal and human food, causing multiple organ failure and health hazards. T-2 toxins induce hepatotoxicity via oxidative stress causing hepatocytes cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. In this study, curcumin and taurine were investigated and compared as antioxidants against T-2-provoked hepatotoxicity. Methods: Wistar rats were administrated T-2 toxin sublethal oral dose (0.1 mg/kg) for 2 months, followed by curcumin (80 mg/kg) and taurine (50 mg/kg) for 3 weeks. Biochemical assessment of liver enzymes, lipid profiles, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs), AFU, TNF-α, total glutathione, molecular docking, histological and immunohistochemical markers for anti-transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1), double-strand DNA damage (H2AX), regeneration (KI67) and apoptosis (Active caspase3) were done. Results and Discussion: Compared to T-2 toxin, curcumin and taurine treatment significantly ameliorated hepatoxicity as; hemoglobin, hematocrit and glutathione, hepatic glycogen, and KI-67 immune-reactive hepatocytes were significantly increased. Although, liver enzymes, inflammation, fibrosis, TGFβ1 immunoexpressing and H2AX and active caspase 3 positive hepatocytes were significantly decreased. Noteworthy, curcumin's therapeutic effect was superior to taurine by histomorphometry parameters. Furthermore, molecular docking of the structural influence of curcumin and taurine on the DNA sequence showed curcumin's higher binding affinity than taurine. Conclusion: Both curcumin and taurine ameliorated T-2 induced hepatotoxicity as strong antioxidative agents with more effectiveness for curcumin.

Dietary taurine supplementation counteracts deoxynivalenol-induced liver injury via alleviating oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis, and inflammation in piglets

Deoxynivalenol (DON), as a widespread Fusarium mycotoxin in cereals, food products, and animal feed, is detrimental to both human and animal health. The liver is not only the primary organ responsible for DON metabolism but also the principal organ affected by DON toxicity. Taurine is well known to display various physiological and pharmacological functions due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the information regarding taurine supplementation counteracting DON-induced liver injury in piglets is still unclear. In our work, twenty-four weaned piglets were subjected to four groups for a 24-day period, including the BD group (a basal diet), the DON group (3 mg/kg DON-contaminated diet), the DON+LT group (3 mg/kg DON-contaminated diet + 0.3% taurine), and the DON+HT group (3 mg/kg DON-contaminated diet + 0.6% taurine). Our findings indicated that taurine supplementation improved growth performance and alleviated DON-induced liver injury, as evidenced by the reduced pathological and serum biochemical changes (ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH), especially in the group with the 0.3% taurine. Taurine could counteract hepatic oxidative stress in piglets exposed to DON, as it reduced ROS, 8-OHdG, and MDA concentrations and improved the activity of antioxidant enzymes. Concurrently, taurine was observed to upregulate the expression of key factors involved in mitochondrial function and the Nrf2 signaling pathway. Furthermore, taurine treatment effectively attenuated DON-induced hepatocyte apoptosis, as verified through the decreased proportion of TUNEL-positive cells and regulation of the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis pathway. Finally, the administration of taurine was able to reduce liver inflammation due to DON, by inactivating the NF-κB signaling pathway and declining the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In summary, our results implied that taurine effectively improved DON-induced liver injury. The underlying mechanism should be that taurine restored mitochondrial normal function and antagonized oxidative stress, thereby reducing apoptosis and inflammatory responses in the liver of weaned piglets.

Acrylamide in food: Occurrence, metabolism, molecular toxicity mechanism and detoxification by phytochemicals

Acrylamide (ACR) is a common pollutant formed during food thermal processing such as frying, baking and roasting. ACR and its metabolites can cause various negative effects on organisms. To date, there have been some reviews summarizing the formation, absorption, detection and prevention of ACR, but there is no systematic summary on the mechanism of ACR-induced toxicity. In the past five years, the molecular mechanism for ACR-induced toxicity has been further explored and the detoxification of ACR by phytochemicals has been partly achieved. This review summarizes the ACR level in foods and its metabolic pathways, as well as highlights the mechanisms underlying ACR-induced toxicity and ACR detoxification by phytochemicals. It appears that oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, autophagy, biochemical metabolism and gut microbiota disturbance are involved in various ACR-induced toxicities. In addition, the effects and possible action mechanisms of phytochemicals, including polyphenols, quinones, alkaloids, terpenoids, as well as vitamins and their analogs on ACR-induced toxicities are also discussed. This review provides potential therapeutic targets and strategies for addressing various ACR-induced toxicities in the future.

The safety of Chinese medicine: A systematic review of endogenous substances and exogenous residues

BACKGROUND

Safety and toxicity have become major challenges in the internationalization of Chinese medicine. Inspite of its wide application, security problems of Chinese medicine still occur from time to time, raising widespread concerns about its safety. Most of the studies either only partially discussed the intrinsic toxicities or extrinsic harmful residues in Chinese medicine, or briefly described detoxification and attenuation methods. It is necessary to systematically discuss Chinese medicine's extrinsic and intrinsic toxic components and corresponding toxicity detoxification or detection methods as a whole.

PURPOSE

This review comprehensively summarizes various toxic components in Chinese medicine from intrinsic and extrinsic. Then the corresponding methods for detoxification or detection of toxicity are highlighted. It is expected to provide a reference for safeguards for developing and using Chinese medicine.

METHODS

A literature search was conducted in the databases, including PubMed, Web of Science,Wan-fang database, and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Keywords used were safety, toxicity, intrinsic toxicities, extrinsic harmful residues, alkaloids, terpene and macrolides, saponins, toxic proteins, toxic crystals, minerals, heavy metals, pesticides, mycotoxins, sulfur dioxide, detoxification, detection, processing (Paozhi), compatibility (Peiwu), Chinese medicine, etc., and combinations of these keywords. All selected articles were from 2006 to 2022, and each was assessed critically for our exclusion criteria. Studies describe the classification of toxic components of Chinese medicine, the toxic effects and mechanisms of Chinese medicine, and the corresponding methods for detoxification or detection of toxicity.

RESULTS

The toxic components of Chinese medicines can be classified as intrinsic toxicities and extrinsic harmful residues. Firstly, we summarized the intrinsic toxicities of Chinese medicine, the adverse effects and toxicity mechanisms caused by these components. Next, we focused on the detoxification or attenuation methods for intrinsic toxicities of Chinese medicine. The other main part discussed the latest progress in analytical strategies for exogenous hazardous substances, including heavy metals, pesticides, and mycotoxins. Beyond reviewing mainstream instrumental methods, we also introduced the emerging biochip, biosensor and immuno-based techniques.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we provide an overall assessment of the recent progress in endogenous toxins and exogenous hazardous substances concerning Chinese medicine, which is expected to render deeper insights into the safety of Chinese medicine.

Deoxynivalenol induces caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis and inflammation in mouse liver and HepaRG cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a frequent food and feed contaminant, poses a severe threat to human and livestock health. Some studies have demonstrated that DON could induce liver damage and cell death. However, novel cell death styles and detailed mechanisms to explain DON-induced liver inflammatory injury are still lacking. Here, we found both chronic and subacute oral administration of DON (3 mg/kg for 4 weeks and 4 mg/kg for 8 days) induced mouse liver inflammatory injury and activated caspase-3, PARP and gasdermin E (GSDME), which were inhibited by caspase-3 inhibitor Z-DEVD and Ac-DEVD. In vitro, HepaRG cells showed typical pyroptotic characteristics after 32 and 64 μM DON exposure for 24 h, including balloon-like bubbling emerging, release of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), secretion of IL-1β and IL-6 and activation of caspase-3 and GSDME. Furthermore, knocking down GSDME and inhibiting caspases activity by Z-VAD and Z-DEVD dramatically blocked DON-induced pyroptotic characteristics, while over-expressed GSDME prompted that. These data demonstrate that caspase-3/GSDME pathway plays a key factor in DON-induced pyroptosis and inflammation in liver. Interestingly, knocking down GSDME could inhibit DON-induced pyroptosis but prompt DON-induced apoptosis, while opposite results were obtained when over-expressed GSDME, indicating the critical role of GSDME in DON-induced crosstalk between apoptosis and pyroptosis. Taken together, our data determine DON-induced caspase-3/GSDME-dependent pyroptosis in liver and its role in DON-induced liver inflammatory injury, which provide a novel mechanistic view into DON-induced hepatotoxicity and may offer a new target to reduce latent harm of DON to both humans and animals.

Network Pharmacological Study on the Mechanism of Cynanchum paniculatum (Xuchangqing) in the Treatment of Bungarus multicinctus Bites

Background

Bungarus multicinctus is one of the top ten venomous snakes in China. Its venom is mainly neurotoxin-based. Novel antivenom drugs need to be further researched and developed.

Objective

This study aimed to explore the molecular mechanism of Cynanchum paniculatum in treating Bungarus multicinctus bites based on network pharmacology. Material and methods. The potential active ingredients of Cynanchum paniculatum were screened and their SDF structures were obtained using the PubChem database and imported into the SwissTargetPrediction database, and targets were obtained for the antitoxin effects of Cynanchum paniculatum in the treatment of Bungarus multicinctus bites. The Cynanchum paniculatum-active compound-potential target network and protein-protein interaction network were constructed by using Cytoscape software, and then biological function analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis were performed using the DAVID.

Results

Seven potential active components (cynapanoside C, cynatratoside B, tomentolide A, sitosterol, sarcostin, tomentogenin, and paeonol) and 286 drug targets were obtained, including 30 key targets for the treatment of bungarotoxin toxicity. The active components mainly acted on PIK3CA, MAPK1, MAP2K1, JAK2, FYN, ACHE, CHRNA7, CHRNA4, and CHRNB2, and they antagonized the inhibitory effect of bungarotoxin on the nervous system through cholinergic synapses and the neurotrophin signaling pathway.

Conclusions

Cynanchum paniculatum exerts a therapeutic effect on Bungarus multicinctus bites through multiple active components, multiple targets, and multiple pathways. The findings provide a theoretical basis for the extraction of active components of Cynanchum paniculatum and for related antivenom experiments.

Zearalenone-14-Glucoside Is Hydrolyzed to Zearalenone by β-Glucosidase in Extracellular Matrix to Exert Intracellular Toxicity in KGN Cells

As one of the most important conjugated mycotoxins, zearalenone-14-glucoside (Z14G) has received widespread attention from researchers. Although the metabolism of Z14G in animals has been extensively studied, the intracellular toxicity and metabolic process of Z14G are not fully elucidated. In this study, the cytotoxicity of Z14G to human ovarian granulosa cells (KGN) and the metabolism of Z14G in KGN cells were determined. Furthermore, the experiments of co-administration of β-glucosidase and pre-administered β-glucosidase inhibitor (Conduritol B epoxide, CBE) were used to clarify the mechanism of Z14G toxicity release. Finally, the human colon adenocarcinoma cell (Caco-2) metabolism model was used to verify the toxicity release mechanism of Z14G. The results showed that the IC₅₀ of Z14G for KGN cells was 420 μM, and the relative hydrolysis rate of Z14G on ZEN was 35% (25% extracellular and 10% intracellular in KGN cells). The results indicated that Z14G cannot enter cells, and Z14G is only hydrolyzed extracellularly to its prototype zearalenone (ZEN) by β-glucosidase which can exert toxic effects in cells. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the cytotoxicity of Z14G and clarified the toxicity release mechanism of Z14G. Different from previous findings, our results showed that Z14G cannot enter cells but exerts cytotoxicity through deglycosylation. This study promotes the formulation of a risk assessment and legislation limit for ZEN and its metabolites.

Prioritization of Mycotoxins Based on Their Genotoxic Potential with an In Silico-In Vitro Strategy

Humans are widely exposed to a great variety of mycotoxins and their mixtures. Therefore, it is important to design strategies that allow prioritizing mycotoxins based on their toxic potential in a time and cost-effective manner. A strategy combining in silico tools (Phase 1), including an expert knowledge-based (DEREK Nexus®, Lhasa Limited, Leeds, UK) and a statistical-based platform (VEGA QSAR©, Mario Negri Institute, Milan, Italy), followed by the in vitro SOS/umu test (Phase 2), was applied to a set of 12 mycotoxins clustered according to their structure into three groups. Phase 1 allowed us to clearly classify group 1 (aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin) as mutagenic and group 3 (ochratoxin A, zearalenone and fumonisin B1) as non-mutagenic. For group 2 (trichothecenes), contradictory conclusions were obtained between the two in silico tools, being out of the applicability domain of many models. Phase 2 confirmed the results obtained in the previous phase for groups 1 and 3. It also provided extra information regarding the role of metabolic activation in aflatoxin B1 and sterigmatocystin mutagenicity. Regarding group 2, equivocal results were obtained in few experiments; however, the group was finally classified as non-mutagenic. The strategy used correlated with the published Ames tests, which detect point mutations. Few alerts for chromosome aberrations could be detected. The SOS/umu test appeared as a good screening test for mutagenicity that can be used in the absence and presence of metabolic activation and independently of Phase 1, although the in silico-in vitro combination gave more information for decision making.