Mytilus trossulus hsp70 as a biomarker for arsenic exposure in the marine environment: laboratory and real-world results

Bioaccumulation and biological effects of hydrogenated cement particles in the marine bivalve, Mytilusgalloprovincialis

The decommissioning and normal functioning of nuclear facilities can result in the production and release of airborne particles in the environment. Aquatic biota are expected to be exposed to these particles considering that nuclear facilities are often located near water bodies. Aerosols, such as cement dust, can interact with radionuclides as well as with heavy metals, and therefore elicit not only radiological impacts but also chemical toxicity. In the present study, we aimed to determine the effects of hydrogenated cement particles (HCPs) as a first step before evaluating any radiotoxicity of tritiated cement particles in the marine mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis. Responses at different levels of biological organisation were assessed, including clearance rate (CR), tissue specific accumulation, DNA damage and transcriptional expression of key stress related genes. Acute (5 h) and medium-term, chronic (11 d) exposures to 1000 μg L-1 HCPs showed that bioaccumulation, assessed using Cu as a proxy and determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, was time and tissue dependent. The highest levels of Cu were found in the digestive gland (DG) after 11 d. HCP exposure caused changes in the expression of oxidative and other stress-related genes, including mt20 in DG and gst and sod in the gill after 5 h exposure, while an overexpression of hsp70 in the gill was observed after 11 d. Genotoxic effects in haemocytes were observed after 11 d of HCP exposure. Multivariate analysis indicated that oxidative stress is the most probable factor contributing to overall physiological dysfunction. Our results provide a baseline to perform further studies employing tritiated cement particles. Specifically, future work should focus on the DG since only this tissue showed significant bioaccumulation when compared to the negative control.

HSP70 as a biomarker of the thin threshold between benefit and injury due to physical exercise when exposed to air pollution

Physical exercise has acute and chronic effects on inflammatory balance, metabolic regulation, and redox status. Exercise-induced adaptations are mediated by enhanced 70-kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) levels and an improved heat shock response (HSR). Therefore, exercise could be useful against disease conditions [obesity, diabetes mellitus (DM), and exposure to atmospheric pollutants] marked by an impaired HSR. However, exercise performed by obese or diabetic subjects under pollution conditions might also be dangerous at certain intensities. Intensity correlates with an increase in HSP70 levels during physical exercise until a critical point at which the effort becomes harmful and impairs the HSR. Establishing a unique biomarker able to indicate the exercise intensity on metabolism and cellular fatigue is essential to ensure adequate and safe exercise recommendations for individuals with obesity or DM who require exercise to improve their metabolic status and live in polluted regions. In this review, we examined the available evidence supporting our hypothesis that HSP70 could serve as a biomarker for determining the optimal exercise intensity for subjects with obesity or diabetes when exposed to air pollution and establishing the fine threshold between anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory exercise effects.

The organochlorine pesticide toxaphene reduces non-mitochondrial respiration and induces heat shock protein 70 expression in early-staged zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Toxaphene is a restricted-use pesticide produced by reacting chlorine gas with camphene. It was heavily used as a pesticide for agricultural purposes in the 1960-1970s, but despite being banned >30 years ago, it can remain elevated in the soil due to its resistance to metabolic degradation; this has led to longstanding concerns about elevated levels of toxaphene and other organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the environment. The objective of this study were to determine the effects of waterborne exposure to toxaphene on early life stages of zebrafish. Based on the LC₅₀, zebrafish embryos were exposed to control (embryo rearing media or DMSO) or to one dose of toxaphene ranging between 0.011 and 111.1 μg/mL from 6 h post fertilization (hpf) up to 120 hpf. Significant mortality and hatch time delays were observed in embryos exposed to toxaphene (at or above 0.11 and 1.11 μg/mL, depending on the assay). Higher prevalence of deformities was noted at higher doses (≥0.011 μg/mL), and these included pericardial edema and skeletal deformities. As energy production is important for normal development, mitochondrial bioenergetics were assessed in embryos following toxaphene exposure. Embryos exposed to 11.1 or 111 μg/mL toxaphene for 24 h showed lower non-mitochondrial respiration (~30%) compared to both solvent and no treatment controls. Expression of transcripts related to oxidative damage responses and apoptosis were measured and heat shock protein 70 was significantly increased with 111 μg/mL toxaphene (14.5 fold), while the expression levels of caspase 3, caspase 9, and superoxide dismutase 1 were not changed. These data demonstrate that developmental deformities induced by toxaphene include pericardial edema and skeletal deformity, and that toxaphene can affect oxidative phosphorylation in early staged zebrafish.

Does Bti (Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis) affect Rana temporaria tadpoles?

Biocides based on toxins of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti) are established as alternatives to conventional chemical insecticides for mosquito control all across the globe since they are regarded ecologically compatible and harmless to non-target species. Since recent studies on amphibian larvae have called this opinion into question, we exposed Rana temporaria tadpoles to single (1 mg/L), tenfold (10 mg/L) and hundredfold (100 mg/L) field concentrations of VectoBac^® WG (a water dispersible granule Bti formulation) in the laboratory for eleven days to investigate whether larvae were adversely affected by Bti and its endotoxin proteins. In addition to a negative (water) control, a positive control based on organic rice protein (50 mg/L) was run to check for the nutritional relevance of Bti proteins. There was no Bti-related mortality and a histopathological analysis of tadpole intestines revealed no adverse effects. Analyses of biomarkers for proteotoxicity (stress protein family, Hsp70) and neurotoxicity or metabolic action (b-esterases acetylcholine esterase (AChE) and carboxylesterases) revealed no significant differences between Bti treatments and the negative control. The responses of tadpoles in the protein-supplemented positive control differed from those of the negative control and the Bti treatments. Tadpoles in the positive control had reduced body mass and elevated AChE activity.

Blue mussels (Mytilus edulis spp.) as sentinel organisms in coastal pollution monitoring: A review

The blue mussel (Mytilus spp.) is widely used as a bioindicator for monitoring of coastal water pollution (mussel watch programs). Herein we provide a review of this study field with emphasis on: the suitability of Mytilus spp. as environmental sentinels; uptake and bioaccumulation patterns of key pollutant classes; the use of Mytilus spp. in mussel watch programs; recent trends in Norwegian mussel monitoring; environmental quality standards and background concentrations of key contaminants; pollutant effect biomarkers; confounding factors; particulate contaminants (microplastics, engineered nanomaterials); climate change; harmonization of monitoring procedures; and the use of deployed mussels (transplant caging) in pollution monitoring. Lastly, the overall state of the art of blue mussel pollution monitoring is discussed and some important issues for future research and development are highlighted.

Synergistic effects of toxic elements on heat shock proteins

Heat shock proteins show remarkable variations in their expression levels under a variety of toxic conditions. A research span expanded over five decades has revealed their molecular characterization, gene regulation, expression patterns, vast similarity in diverse groups, and broad range of functional capabilities. Their functions include protection and tolerance against cytotoxic conditions through their molecular chaperoning activity, maintaining cytoskeleton stability, and assisting in cell signaling. However, their role as biomarkers for monitoring the environmental risk assessment is controversial due to a number of conflicting, validating, and nonvalidating reports. The current knowledge regarding the interpretation of HSPs expression levels has been discussed in the present review. The candidature of heat shock proteins as biomarkers of toxicity is thus far unreliable due to synergistic effects of toxicants and other environmental factors. The adoption of heat shock proteins as "suit of biomarkers in a set of organisms" requires further investigation.

Cellular and transcriptional responses of Crassostrea gigas hemocytes exposed in vitro to brevetoxin (PbTx-2)

Hemocytes mediate a series of immune reactions essential for bivalve survival in the environment, however, the impact of harmful algal species and their associated phycotoxins upon bivalve immune system is under debate. To better understand the possible toxic effects of these toxins, Crassostrea gigas hemocytes were exposed to brevetoxin (PbTx-2). Hemocyte viability, monitored through the neutral red retention and MTT reduction assays, and apoptosis (Hoechst staining) remained unchanged during 12 h of exposure to PbTx-2 in concentrations up to 1000 µg/L. Despite cell viability and apoptosis remained stable, hemocytes incubated for 4 h with 1000 µg/L of PbTx-2 revealed higher expression levels of Hsp70 (p < 0.01) and CYP356A1 (p < 0.05) transcripts and a tendency to increase FABP expression, as evaluated by Real-Time quantitative PCR. The expression of other studied genes (BPI, IL-17, GSTO, EcSOD, Prx6, SOD and GPx) remained unchanged. The results suggest that the absence of cytotoxic effects of PbTx-2 in Crassostrea gigas hemocytes, even at high concentrations, allow early defense responses to be produced by activating protective mechanisms associated to detoxification (CYP356A1 and possibly FABP) and stress (Hsp70), but not to immune or to antioxidant (BPI, IL-17, EcSOD, Prx6, GPx and SOD) related genes.

Molecular profiling of marine fauna: integration of omics with environmental assessment of the world's oceans

Many species that contribute to the commercial and ecological richness of our marine ecosystems are harbingers of environmental change. The ability of organisms to rapidly detect and respond to changes in the surrounding environment represents the foundation for application of molecular profiling technologies towards marine sentinel species in an attempt to identify signature profiles that may reside within the transcriptome, proteome, or metabolome and that are indicative of a particular environmental exposure event. The current review highlights recent examples of the biological information obtained for marine sentinel teleosts, mammals, and invertebrates. While in its infancy, such basal information can provide a systems biology framework in the detection and evaluation of environmental chemical contaminant effects on marine fauna. Repeated evaluation across different seasons and local marine environs will lead to discrimination between signature profiles representing normal variation within the complex milieu of environmental factors that trigger biological response in a given sentinel species and permit a greater understanding of normal versus anthropogenic-associated modulation of biological pathways, which prove detrimental to marine fauna. It is anticipated that incorporation of contaminant-specific molecular signatures into current risk assessment paradigms will lead to enhanced wildlife management strategies that minimize the impacts of our industrialized society on marine ecosystems.

Relationship between mRNA biomarker candidates and location near a marine municipal wastewater outfall in the benthic indicator species Modiolus modiolus (L.)

The deep-sea horse mussel Modiolus modiolus (L.) is a sentinel bivalve species used for the assessment of potential biological exposure to anthropogenic contaminants in benthic environments. Using a combination of endpoints that included gross biological metrics, reproductive status, tissue contaminant load, and mRNA abundance profiles, we characterized variation in the local M. modiolus population situated in different spatial zones relative to a municipal wastewater outfall. Significant differences were observed in reproductive indicators, growth parameters, and abundance of four specific mRNA transcripts representative of stress response or membrane transport (CAT, NET/SCF6, ABCA4 and HSP70) in adductor muscle tissue of animals adjacent to the wastewater outfall. Concentrations of metals and organic chemicals in M. modiolus tissue were generally highest directly at the outfall site with much lower levels at 100-800 m from the outfall. This general pattern did not match the mRNA profiles. HSP70 and ABCA4 mRNA showed increased abundance in all regions adjacent to the municipal outfall compared to the reference site. One site group located within 100-200 m south/south-easterly of the outfall had increased levels of all four transcripts. Some mRNAs showed significant correlations with nickel, arsenic, lead, selenium, copper, and one of thirteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons measured (dibenzo(a,h)-anthracene). Three mRNAs (CAT, NET/SCF6, and ABCA4) were negatively correlated with bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. The data suggest that these benthic organisms are exhibiting biological responses to the outfall and support an alternate interpretation regarding dispersal of contaminants. The potential effects of emerging chemicals of concern entering the receiving environment merits further assessment.

Expression of HSP70 in Mytilus californianus following exposure to caffeine

Caffeine, a biologically active drug with many known molecular targets, is recognized as a contaminant of marine systems. Although the concentrations of caffeine reported from aquatic systems are low (ng/l-μg/l), harmful ecological effects not detected by traditional toxicity tests could occur as a result of caffeine contamination. We used Hsp70, a molecular biomarker of cellular stress, to investigate the sub-lethal cellular toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of caffeine on the mussel Mytilus californianus, a dominant species in the rocky intertidal zone along the Oregon Coast. Hsp70 concentrations in the gill and mantle tissue of mussels exposed to 0.05, 0.2, and 0.5 μg/l of caffeine for 10, 20, and 30 days were compared to basal levels in control mussels. Hsp70 in the gill tissue of M. californianus had an initial attenuation of the stress protein followed by a significant up-regulation relative to controls in all but the 0.5 μg/l treatment. Hsp70 in the mantle tissue of mussels exposed to caffeine did not differ from control mussels. This study provides laboratory evidence that environmentally relevant concentrations of caffeine can exert an effect on M. californianus gill tissue at the molecular-level.

Impact of metals on histopathology and expression of HSP 70 in different tissues of Milk fish (Chanos chanos) of Kaattuppalli Island, South East Coast, India

Histological and Immunohistochemical studies were carried out to document the possible impact of heavy metal contamination in different tissues of Chanos chanos. Heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Mn and Fe were predominant in water, sediment and biota of Kaattuppalli Island and varied significantly between two different sites. Histological changes such as swelling of muscle fiber and break down of muscle bundles were noted in the muscle. Similarly gill filament cell proliferation, increase in intercellular spaces and primary and secondary lamellar epithelium were evident in gills. The hepatocytes showed damage of central vein and rupture of irregular hepatic plate with more number of vacuoles in the fish collected from polluted site compared to that from the less polluted site. The impact of pollution was also assessed in different tissues by immunohistochemistry using primary antibody (mouse monoclonal HSP70 antibody 1:2000) and secondary antibody (HRP conjugated antibody) for expression of stress protein. Immunostaining analysis showed expression of HSP70 with high intensity in the tissues of fish collected from polluted site compared to less polluted sites. Further, HSP70 positive cells were analyzed from six locations per fish tissue section. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by least significant difference (LSD) was used to check if the expression was significant. Results indicate that the values are statistically significant at the two different sampling sites (P<0.05).

Metallothioneins and heat shock proteins 70 in marine mussels as sensors of environmental pollution in Northern Adriatic Sea

In an attempt to assess the intensity of environmental pollution in industrial zones of Kvarnerian Bay in Northern Adriatic Sea and the reactivity of Mytilus galloprovincialis to these changes, in this study we estimated the concentration of heavy metals at four locations in both sea-sediment and in the mussels. Further we tried to correlate these changes with seasonal variations in environmental temperature, pH and salinity, as well as with the expression of metallothioneins (MTs) and heat shock proteins (HSPs) in the digestive tract of the mussels. Sampling in vivo was performed monthly, during the year 2008, while under the laboratory conditions the reactivity of acclimated mussels were tested to increasing concentrations of CdCl(2) and to thermal stress. The data have shown that the induction of MTs and HSP isoforms of the 70-kDa size class were highly affected by model agents treatment including contamination of sea-sediment by Pb, Hg and Cd, implying that these stress proteins might be power biomarkers of marine pollution.

Identification of the molecules involved in zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) hemocytes host defense

The invasion of North American waterbodies by the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) has caused ecological catastrophies in North America. Unfortunately, little is known about this nuisance mollusk and its host defense mechanisms. In this study, 32 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) associated with hemocyte stimulation were obtained from a suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) cDNA library. This SSH-cDNA library was produced by using a cDNA library of naïve hemocytes as the driver and a cDNA library of hemocytes stimulated with a mixture of microbial antigens namely, lipopolysacchride (LPS), peptidoglycan (PGN), and zymosan (ZYM), as the tester. The driver cDNA was subtracted from the tester to increase the relative abundance of the cDNAs that were induced by stimulations. The putative function of 27 ESTs were obtained by using the homologue searching program BLASTx and BLASTn. Four ESTs encoding the protein product homologous to matrilin (Matrn, AM503947), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70, EU835391), seryl-tRNA synthetase (STS, AM503950), and glycine-rich protein (GRP, AM502279) were selected for a subsequent study using quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays with the RNA extracted from hemocytes stimulated with LPS alone. The results of quantitative PCR with stimulated hemocyte RNA demonstrated that the four candidate genes were upregulated by LPS stimulation. The expression levels of both HSP70 and Matrn genes between naïve and 1-h stimulated hemocyte samples are the most significant with 2.78 and 2.20 fold increases, respectively. The significant changes of GRP and STS genes were observed after 2-h stimulation. The phylogenetic analysis of HSP70 molecule indicated that this protein is phylogenetically close to the HSP70 identified from other mollusks. This study shed light on hemocyte-mediated host defense mechanisms of D. polymorpha.

Vitellogenin, zona radiata protein, cathepsin D and heat shock protein 70 as biomarkers of exposure to xenobiotics

The antagonistic and/or synergistic effects of different chemical compounds were examined in the marine teleost, Gobius niger, by testing a series of biomarkers involved in fish reproduction. Among the biomarkers analysed, vitellogenin (VTG) and zona radiata proteins (ZRP) are key molecules involved in reproduction, widely used to detect the presence of pollutants in the marine environment, while heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) and cathepsin D (CATD) have recently been introduced as bioindicators of endocrine disruption. The detection of VTG and ZRP in the plasma of wild male specimens is universally accepted as an early warning signal of environmental pollution. The evaluation of VTG, ZRP and CATD expression demonstrated the oestrogenic effect of nonylphenol on both male and female fish; on the contrary beta-naphthoflavone behaves mainly as an anti-oestrogen although, when co-injected with compounds with oestrogenic activity, it enhances ZRP gene expression. Regarding the chaperone, all treatments stressed the fish, inducing an increase in HSP70 gene transcription. The results obtained underlined the importance of testing the effects of compound mixtures: fish in the wild are subjected to a blend of chemicals and the effects observed derive from the synergic or antagonistic interactions of these compounds.

Proteomics-Based Method for the Assessment of Marine Pollution Using Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Two-Dimensional Electrophoresis

Using a proteomic approach, we have developed a new method for the assessment of marine pollution that generates highly reproducible protein expression patterns and it is simple and scalable. The protocol is based on applying liquid chromatography (LC) coupled with two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) to analyze changes in the protein expression pattern after exposure to marine pollution. The digestive gland of the sentinel "blue mussel" (Mytilus edulis) was batch-processed through a simple cell fractionation followed by ion-exchange chromatography and 2-DE. The selection of ligands, elution method, and small volume design was carefully considered to define a protocol that could be mainly robotized. A pilot study with samples collected from different Gothenburg harbor areas indicated that the clean area could be distinguished from the polluted ones based on a protein expression pattern (PES) composed of 13 proteins. Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical clustering confirmed that the PES was sufficient to discriminate polluted and unpolluted areas and to provide a spatial gradient from the polluted source. Several proteins from the PES were identified by electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS), and they are involved in beta-oxidation, amino acid metabolism, detoxification, protein degradation, organelle biogenesis, and protein folding. In the near future, this methodology could show potential advantages to assess marine pollution and could become a stable platform to elucidate ecotoxicological questions.

Locational differences in heavy metals and metalloids in Pacific Blue Mussels Mytilus [edulis] trossulus from Adak Island in the Aleutian Chain, Alaska

Increasingly there is a need to implement biomonitoring plans that can be sustained cost-effectively, focusing on single widespread (or closely-related species) in different parts of the world to detect exposure, potential damage to the organisms themselves, and risk to their consumers, including humans. Blue Mussels (Mytilus edulis and its relatives) have been widely used for environmental monitoring. One successful program that has achieved great coverage in time and space is "Mussel Watch", and related programs exist in several regions. In this paper we use the Pacific Blue Mussel Mytilus [edulis] trossulus collected from five locations on Adak Island in the Aleutian Chain to examine five heavy metals and two metalloids, to test for locational differences as a function of anthropogenic activities, and to consider potential human health risks. Until the late 1990s Adak hosted a large U.S. military base, with multiple areas of contamination, some of which have been remediated. In June 2004 we identified four presumably human-impacted sites and a presumed unimpacted reference site, the latter on Clam Lagoon Beach, about 3 km from former military activity. No single site had the highest level of more than two metals, and the reference site had the highest levels of chromium and manganese. We subsequently found historic records of a former landfill within 1 km of the reference site. All of the locational differences were less than an order of magnitude, the greatest difference between the highest and lowest values being 4.5 times for lead. The highest correlations were between mercury and arsenic, mercury and lead, arsenic and lead, and chromium and manganese. Shell length was a better indicator of metals' levels than soft body weight, but the relationships were weak. There was no significant correlation between body size or weight with arsenic, lead, or selenium levels. There is substantial comparative data on these metals in mussels. Our results from Adak are generally within the range of mean values reported in the literature, except for the consistently elevated levels of chromium.