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Wang X, Meng Q, Chen H, Yin X, Dai H, Zhao P, Pan Y, Xia X, Zhang L. Secondary metabolites isolated from Penicillium christenseniae SD.84 and their antimicrobial resistance effects. Nat Prod Res 2024; 38:1311-1319. [PMID: 36336920 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2022.2140150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A pair of new quinolone alkaloid enantiomers, (Ra)-(-)-viridicatol (1) and (Sa)-(+)-viridicatol (4), and seven known compounds, namely, 2, 3 and 5-9, were isolated from Penicillium christenseniae SD.84. The structures of 1 and 4 were determined using NMR and HRESIMS data. Theoretical calculations through CD and ECD confirmed 1 and 4 as a pair of enantiomers. The MIC values of 4 against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus were 12.4 and 24.7 μM, respectively, compound 1 had no inhibitory activity. Antimicrobial assays of 2, 3, and 5-7 showed a moderate activity against S. aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus. This study demonstrated the remarkable potential of Penicillium sp. to produce new drug-resistant leading compounds, thereby advancing the mining for new sources of antimicrobial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinzhu Wang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Qixia District, China
| | - Qingzhou Meng
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Haiyan Chen
- Medical College of Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xin Yin
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Huanqin Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Savaid Medical School, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peipei Zhao
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Yang Pan
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Qixia District, China
| | - Xuekui Xia
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
| | - Lixin Zhang
- Biology Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, China
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, and School of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
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2
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Gupta S, Choudhary M, Singh B, Kushwaha M, Dhar MK, Kaul S. Green synthesis and biological evaluation of glaucanic acid and dihydrocompactin acid by endophytic fungus Penicillium polonicum from Zingiber officinale. Nat Prod Res 2024; 38:696-700. [PMID: 36896764 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2023.2188210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
Fungal endophytes are valued for biosynthesizing chemically diverse metabolic cascade with interesting biological activities. In the current investigation, two compounds were isolated from Penicillium polonicum, an endophyte of Zingiber officinale. The active moieties, glaucanic acid (1) and dihydrocompactin acid (2) were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract of P. polonicum and characterized by NMR and mass spectroscopy. Further, bioactive potential of the isolated compounds was evaluated by antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxicity assays. Compounds 1 and 2 displayed antifungal activity against phytopathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides with more than 50% reduction in its growth. Both the compounds exhibited antioxidant activity against free radicals (DPPH and ABTS) and cytotoxicity activity against cancer cell lines respectively. The compounds, glaucanic acid and dihydrocompactin acid are being reported for the first time from an endophytic fungus. This is the first report on the biological activities of Dihydrocompactin acid produced by endophytic fungal strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suruchi Gupta
- Fungal Biotech Lab, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Malvi Choudhary
- Fungal Biotech Lab, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Baljinder Singh
- Natural Products Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Manoj Kushwaha
- Natural Products Chemistry Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India
| | - Manoj K Dhar
- Fungal Biotech Lab, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
| | - Sanjana Kaul
- Fungal Biotech Lab, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu, Jammu, India
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3
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Wang CY, Gan D, Li CZ, Zhu L, Zhang XR, Li YN, Wu XH, Zhou H, Cai L. A new cyclohexenone derivative from phomopsis sp. XM-01. Nat Prod Res 2024; 38:458-462. [PMID: 36151997 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2022.2127707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
A new cyclohexenone derivative, phomopine (1), together with five known compounds (2-6) were isolated from Phomopsis sp. XM-01. The structure of 1 was determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculation. In vitro bioassays, compounds 1 and 2 exhibited potent antimicrobial activities against Candida albicans and Staphylococcus aureus with their corresponding minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 64 μg/mL and 16 μg/mL, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Yao Wang
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Dong Gan
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Chen-Zhe Li
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Li Zhu
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Xiao-Ran Zhang
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Ya-Ni Li
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Xiu-Hong Wu
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Hao Zhou
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
| | - Le Cai
- Functional Molecules Analysis and Biotransformation Key Laboratory of Universities in Yunnan, Province, Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry for Natural Resource, Ministry of Education, Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming, P.R. China
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4
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Digra S, Nonzom S. An insight into endophytic antimicrobial compounds: an updated analysis. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY REPORTS 2023; 17:1-31. [PMID: 37359493 PMCID: PMC10013304 DOI: 10.1007/s11816-023-00824-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Resistance in micro-organisms against antimicrobial compounds is an emerging phenomenon in the modern era as compared to the traditional world which brings new challenges to discover novel antimicrobial compounds from different available sources, such as, medicinal plants, various micro-organisms, like, bacteria, fungi, algae, actinomycetes, and endophytes. Endophytes reside inside the plants without exerting any harmful impact on the host plant along with providing ample of benefits. In addition, they are capable of producing diverse antimicrobial compounds similar to their host, allowing them to serve as useful micro-organism for a range of therapeutic purposes. In recent years, a large number of studies on the antimicrobial properties of endophytic fungi have been carried out globally. These antimicrobials have been used to treat various bacterial, fungal, and viral infections in humans. In this review, the potential of fungal endophytes to produce diverse antimicrobial compounds along with their various benefits to their host have been focused on. In addition, classification systems of endophytic fungi as well as the need for antimicrobial production with genetic involvement and some of the vital novel antimicrobial compounds of endophytic origin can further be utilized in the pharmaceutical industries for various formulations along with the role of nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents have been highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Digra
- Depatment of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K 180006 India
| | - Skarma Nonzom
- Depatment of Botany, University of Jammu, Jammu, J&K 180006 India
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Guo J, Yang J, Wang P, Guo B, Li H, Zhang D, An F, Gao S. Anti-vibriosis bioactive molecules from Arctic Penicillium sp. Z2230. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2023; 10:11. [PMID: 38647601 PMCID: PMC10992105 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-023-00628-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Vibrio species (Vibrio sp.) is a class of Gram-negative aquatic bacteria that causes vibriosis in aquaculture, which have resulted in big economic losses. Utilization of antibiotics against vibriosis has brought concerns on antibiotic resistance, and it is essential to explore potential antibiotic alternatives. In this study, seven compounds (compounds 1-7) were isolated from the Arctic endophytic fungus Penicillium sp. Z2230, among which compounds 3, 4, and 5 showed anti-Vibrio activity. The structures of the seven compounds were comprehensively elucidated, and the antibacterial mechanism of compounds 3, 4, and 5 was explored by molecular docking. The results suggested that the anti-Vibrio activity could come from inhibition of the bacterial peptide deformylase (PDF). This study discovered three Penicillium-derived compounds to be potential lead molecules for developing novel anti-Vibrio agents, and identified PDF as a promising antibacterial target. It also expanded the bioactive diversity of polar endophytic fungi by showing an example in which the secondary metabolites of a polar microbe were a good source of natural medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Guo
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Pharmaceutical Compound Screening, MNR Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, School of Pharmacy, Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang, 222005, China
| | - Jin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Pei Wang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Bo Guo
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Pharmaceutical Compound Screening, MNR Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, School of Pharmacy, Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang, 222005, China
| | - Huifang Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Pharmaceutical Compound Screening, MNR Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, School of Pharmacy, Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang, 222005, China
| | - Di Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Pharmaceutical Compound Screening, MNR Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, School of Pharmacy, Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang, 222005, China.
| | - Faliang An
- Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Song Gao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Biological Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Marine Pharmaceutical Compound Screening, MNR Key Laboratory of Coastal Salt Marsh Ecosystems and Resources, School of Pharmacy, Co-Innovation Center of Jiangsu Marine Bio-Industry Technology, Jiangsu Ocean University, Lianyungang, 222005, China.
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6
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Deshmukh SK, Dufossé L, Chhipa H, Saxena S, Mahajan GB, Gupta MK. Fungal Endophytes: A Potential Source of Antibacterial Compounds. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:164. [PMID: 35205918 PMCID: PMC8877021 DOI: 10.3390/jof8020164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is becoming a burning issue due to the frequent use of antibiotics for curing common bacterial infections, indicating that we are running out of effective antibiotics. This has been more obvious during recent corona pandemics. Similarly, enhancement of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is strengthening the pathogenicity and virulence of infectious microbes. Endophytes have shown expression of various new many bioactive compounds with significant biological activities. Specifically, in endophytic fungi, bioactive metabolites with unique skeletons have been identified which could be helpful in the prevention of increasing antimicrobial resistance. The major classes of metabolites reported include anthraquinone, sesquiterpenoid, chromone, xanthone, phenols, quinones, quinolone, piperazine, coumarins and cyclic peptides. In the present review, we reported 451 bioactive metabolites isolated from various groups of endophytic fungi from January 2015 to April 2021 along with their antibacterial profiling, chemical structures and mode of action. In addition, we also discussed various methods including epigenetic modifications, co-culture, and OSMAC to induce silent gene clusters for the production of noble bioactive compounds in endophytic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil K Deshmukh
- TERI-Deakin Nano Biotechnology Centre, The Energy and Resources Institute, Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, Delhi, India
- Agpharm Bioinnovations LLP, Incubatee: Science and Technology Entrepreneurs Park (STEP), Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala 147004, Punjab, India
| | - Laurent Dufossé
- Chimie et Biotechnologie des Produits Naturels (CHEMBIOPRO Lab) & ESIROI Agroalimentaire, Université de la Réunion, 15 Avenue René Cassin, 97744 Saint-Denis, France
| | - Hemraj Chhipa
- College of Horticulture and Forestry, Agriculture University Kota, Jhalawar 322360, Rajasthan, India
| | - Sanjai Saxena
- Agpharm Bioinnovations LLP, Incubatee: Science and Technology Entrepreneurs Park (STEP), Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala 147004, Punjab, India
- Department of Biotechnology, Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala 147004, Punjab, India
| | - Girish B Mahajan
- HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai 400086, Maharashtra, India
| | - Manish Kumar Gupta
- SGT College of Pharmacy, SGT University, Gurugram 122505, Haryana, India
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Endophytic Fungi: Key Insights, Emerging Prospects, and Challenges in Natural Product Drug Discovery. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10020360. [PMID: 35208814 PMCID: PMC8876476 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10020360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant-associated endophytes define an important symbiotic association in nature and are established bio-reservoirs of plant-derived natural products. Endophytes colonize the internal tissues of a plant without causing any disease symptoms or apparent changes. Recently, there has been a growing interest in endophytes because of their beneficial effects on the production of novel metabolites of pharmacological significance. Studies have highlighted the socio-economic implications of endophytic fungi in agriculture, medicine, and the environment, with considerable success. Endophytic fungi-mediated biosynthesis of well-known metabolites includes taxol from Taxomyces andreanae, azadirachtin A and B from Eupenicillium parvum, vincristine from Fusarium oxysporum, and quinine from Phomopsis sp. The discovery of the billion-dollar anticancer drug taxol was a landmark in endophyte biology/research and established new paradigms for the metabolic potential of plant-associated endophytes. In addition, endophytic fungi have emerged as potential prolific producers of antimicrobials, antiseptics, and antibiotics of plant origin. Although extensively studied as a “production platform” of novel pharmacological metabolites, the molecular mechanisms of plant–endophyte dynamics remain less understood/explored for their efficient utilization in drug discovery. The emerging trends in endophytic fungi-mediated biosynthesis of novel bioactive metabolites, success stories of key pharmacological metabolites, strategies to overcome the existing challenges in endophyte biology, and future direction in endophytic fungi-based drug discovery forms the underlying theme of this article.
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Thissera B, Sayed AM, Hassan MHA, Abdelwahab SF, Amaeze N, Semler VT, Alenezi FN, Yaseen M, Alhadrami HA, Belbahri L, Rateb ME. Bioguided Isolation of Cyclopenin Analogues as Potential SARS-CoV-2 M pro Inhibitors from Penicillium citrinum TDPEF34. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1366. [PMID: 34572579 PMCID: PMC8467212 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 virus mutations might increase its virulence, and thus the severity and duration of the ongoing pandemic. Global drug discovery campaigns have successfully developed several vaccines to reduce the number of infections by the virus. However, finding a small molecule pharmaceutical that is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 remains a challenge. Natural products are the origin of many currently used pharmaceuticals and, for this reason, a library of in-house fungal extracts were screened to assess their potential to inhibit the main viral protease Mpro in vitro. The extract of Penicillium citrinum, TDPEF34, showed potential inhibition and was further analysed to identify potential Mpro inhibitors. Following bio-guided isolation, a series of benzodiazepine alkaloids cyclopenins with good-to-moderate activity against SARS-CoV-2 Mpro were identified. The mode of enzyme inhibition of these compounds was predicted by docking and molecular dynamic simulation. Compounds 1 (isolated as two conformers of S- and R-isomers), 2, and 4 were found to have promising in vitro inhibitory activity towards Mpro, with an IC50 values range of 0.36-0.89 µM comparable to the positive control GC376. The in silico investigation revealed compounds to achieve stable binding with the enzyme active site through multiple H-bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Additionally, the isolated compounds showed very good drug-likeness and ADMET properties. Our findings could be utilized in further in vitro and in vivo investigations to produce anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug candidates. These findings also provide critical structural information that could be used in the future for designing potent Mpro inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bathini Thissera
- School of Computing, Engineering & Physical Science, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (B.T.); (V.T.S.); (M.Y.)
| | - Ahmed M. Sayed
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nahda University, Beni-Suef 62513, Egypt;
| | - Marwa H. A. Hassan
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 62514, Egypt;
| | - Sayed F. Abdelwahab
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Taif College of Pharmacy, Taif University, P.O. Box 11099, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Ngozi Amaeze
- School of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK;
| | - Valeria T. Semler
- School of Computing, Engineering & Physical Science, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (B.T.); (V.T.S.); (M.Y.)
| | - Faizah N. Alenezi
- The Public Authority for Applied Education and Training, Adailiyah 00965, Kuwait;
| | - Mohammed Yaseen
- School of Computing, Engineering & Physical Science, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (B.T.); (V.T.S.); (M.Y.)
| | - Hani A. Alhadrami
- Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80402, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia;
- Molecular Diagnostic Lab, King Abdulaziz University Hospital, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80402, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lassaad Belbahri
- Laboratory of Soil Biology, University of Neuchatel, 2000 Neuchatel, Switzerland;
| | - Mostafa E. Rateb
- School of Computing, Engineering & Physical Science, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley PA1 2BE, UK; (B.T.); (V.T.S.); (M.Y.)
- Marine Biodiscovery Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, UK
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Cheng C, Zhang Y. Palladium-Catalyzed anti-Carbosilylation of Alkynes to Access Isoquinolinone-Containing Exocyclic Vinylsilanes. Org Lett 2021; 23:5772-5776. [PMID: 34259535 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.1c01931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A Pd-catalyzed trans-selective carbosilylation reaction of alkynes has been developed. The trans-vinylpalladium species, generated through intramolecular syn-carbopalladation of alkynes and subsequent cis-trans isomerization, were captured by hexamethyldisilane to form multisubstituted vinylsilanes. This reaction provides a useful strategy for the stereoselective synthesis of isoquinolinone-containing exocyclic tetrasubstituted vinylsilanes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cang Cheng
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Tongji University 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Yanghui Zhang
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Chemical Assessment and Sustainability, Tongji University 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
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Xu K, Li XQ, Zhao DL, Zhang P. Antifungal Secondary Metabolites Produced by the Fungal Endophytes: Chemical Diversity and Potential Use in the Development of Biopesticides. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:689527. [PMID: 34234763 PMCID: PMC8255633 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.689527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant diseases caused by phytopathogenic fungi can lead to huge losses in the agricultural fields and therefore remain a continuous threat to the global food security. Chemical-based fungicides contributed significantly in securing crop production. However, indiscriminate application of fungicides has led to increased chemical resistance and potential risks to human health and environment. Thus, there is an urgent need for searching for new bioactive natural products and developing them into new biopesticides. Fungal endophytes, microorganisms that reside in the fresh tissues of living plants, are regarded as untapped sources of novel natural products for exploitation in agriculture and/or medicine. Chemical examination of endophytic fungi has yielded enormous antifungal natural products with potential use in the development of biopesticides. This review summarizes a total of 132 antifungal metabolites isolated from fungal endophytes in the past two decades. The emphasis is on the unique chemical diversity of these metabolic products, together with their relevant antifungal properties. Moreover, some "star molecules," such as griseofulvin and trichothecene, as well as their synthetic derivatives that possess high potential as candidates of new natural fungicides, are also presented herein.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dong-Lin Zhao
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, China
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New Prenylated Indole Homodimeric and Pteridine Alkaloids from the Marine-Derived Fungus Aspergillus austroafricanus Y32-2. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020098. [PMID: 33572212 PMCID: PMC7916005 DOI: 10.3390/md19020098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical investigation of secondary metabolites from the marine-derived fungus Aspergillus austroafricanus Y32-2 resulted in the isolation of two new prenylated indole alkaloid homodimers, di-6-hydroxydeoxybrevianamide E (1) and dinotoamide J (2), one new pteridine alkaloid asperpteridinate A (3), with eleven known compounds (4-14). Their structures were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods including HRESIMS and NMR, while their absolute configurations were determined by ECD calculations. Each compound was evaluated for pro-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory effects in zebrafish models and cytotoxicity for HepG2 human liver carcinoma cells. As a result, compounds 2, 4, 5, 7, 10 exhibited pro-angiogenic activity in a PTK787-induced vascular injury zebrafish model in a dose-dependent manner, compounds 7, 8, 10, 11 displayed anti-inflammatory activity in a CuSO4-induced zebrafish inflammation model, and compound 6 showed significant cytotoxicity against HepG2 cells with an IC50 value of 30 µg/mL.
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12
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Fungal Biopharmaceuticals: Current Research, Production, and Potential Applications. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-85603-8_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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13
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Zhou M, Yu K, Liu J, Shi W, Pan Y, Tang H, Peng X, Liu Q, Wang H. Light-driven selective aerobic oxidation of (iso)quinoliniums and related heterocycles. RSC Adv 2021; 11:16246-16251. [PMID: 35479138 PMCID: PMC9031974 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra01226f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Selective C1–H/C4–H carbonylation of N-methylene iminium salts, catalyzed by visible-light photoredox and oxygen in the air, has been reported. A ruthenium complex acts as a chemical switch to conduct two different reaction pathways and to afford two different kinds of products. In the absence of the ruthenium complex, the Csp2–H bonds adjacent to the nitrogen atoms are oxidized to α-lactams by the N-methyleneiminium substrates themselves as photosensitizers. In the presence of the ruthenium complex, the oxidation reaction site of quinoliniums is switched to the C4 region, resulting in the formation of 4-quinolones. The use of two transformations directly introduces oxygen into the nitrogen heterocyclic skeletons under an air atmosphere. The selective C1–H/C4–H carbonylation of N-methyleneiminium salts catalyzed by visible-light photoredox reactions and oxygen in the air has been reported.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Meimei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences of Guangxi Normal University
- Guilin 541004
- People's Republic of China
| | - Keyang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education
- Gannan Medical University
- Ganzhou 341000
- People's Republic of China
| | - Jianxin Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science
- Gannan Medical University
- Ganzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Weimei Shi
- School of Pharmaceutical Science
- Gannan Medical University
- Ganzhou
- P. R. China
| | - Yingming Pan
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences of Guangxi Normal University
- Guilin 541004
- People's Republic of China
| | - Haitao Tang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences of Guangxi Normal University
- Guilin 541004
- People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangjun Peng
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education
- Gannan Medical University
- Ganzhou 341000
- People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases of Ministry of Education
- Gannan Medical University
- Ganzhou 341000
- People's Republic of China
| | - Hengshan Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Medicinal Resources
- School of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences of Guangxi Normal University
- Guilin 541004
- People's Republic of China
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14
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Zhu YX, Peng C, Ding W, Hu JF, Li J. Chromenopyridin A, a new N-methoxy-1-pyridone alkaloid from the endophytic fungus Penicillium nothofagi P-6 isolated from the critically endangered conifer Abies beshanzuensis. Nat Prod Res 2020; 36:2049-2055. [PMID: 33185141 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1844700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A new N-methoxy-1-pyridone alkaloid [chromenopyridin A (1)] and four known compounds (2-5) were isolated and identified from the endophytic fungus Penicillium nothofagi P-6, which was derived from the bark of the critically endangered conifer Abies beshanzuensis. Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analyses and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Among the isolates, compound 1 showed considerable cytotoxicities against the A549 and Hela human cancer cell lines, with IC50 values of 14.7 and 11.3 μM. In addition, compounds 1 and 4 exhibited potent antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus with MIC values of 62.5 and 15.6 μg/mL, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Xing Zhu
- Department of Biological Medicines, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Cheng Peng
- Department of Biological Medicines, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Wenxin Ding
- Department of Biological Medicines, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jin-Feng Hu
- Department of Natural Products Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jiyang Li
- Department of Biological Medicines, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, PR China
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15
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Quinolone and isoquinolone alkaloids: the structural-electronic effects and the antioxidant mechanisms. Struct Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-020-01602-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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16
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Endophytic Penicillium species and their agricultural, biotechnological, and pharmaceutical applications. 3 Biotech 2020; 10:107. [PMID: 32095421 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-020-2081-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Penicillium genus constituted by over 200 species is one of the largest and fascinating groups of fungi, particularly well established as a source of antibiotics. Endophytic Penicillium has been reported to colonize their ecological niches and protect their host plant against multiples stresses by exhibiting diverse biological functions that can be exploited for countless applications including agricultural, biotechnological, and pharmaceutical. Over the past 2 decades, endophytic Penicillium species have been investigated beyond their antibiotic potential and numerous applications have been reported. We comprehensively summarized in this review available data (2000-2019) regarding bioactive compounds isolated from endophytic Penicillium species as well as the application of these fungi in multiple agricultural and biotechnological processes. This review has shown that a very large number (131) of endophytes from this genus have been investigated so far and more than 280 compounds exhibiting antimicrobial, anticancer, antiviral, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, antiparasitics, immunosuppressants, antidiabetic, anti-obesity, antifibrotic, neuroprotective effects, and insecticidal and biocontrol activities have been reported. Moreover, several endophytic Penicillium spp. have been characterized as biocatalysts, plant growth promoters, phytoremediators, and enzyme producers. We hope that this review summarizes the status of research on this genus and will stimulate further investigations.
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17
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Hamed A, Ismail M, El-Metwally MM, Frese M, Ibrahim TMA, El-Haddad AF, Sewald N, Shaaban M. Diverse polyketides and alkaloids from Penicillium sp. KHMM: structural elucidation, biological and molecular docking studies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 74:131-137. [PMID: 30645191 DOI: 10.1515/znc-2018-0145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
As a continuation of our earlier research concerning the investigation of microbial bioactive secondary metabolites from the terrestrial Penicillium sp.KH Link 1809 isolate KHMM, the fungus was re-cultivated on a large scale to explore its bioactive compounds intensively. Fifteen compounds, including seven alkaloids (1-7), one sesquiterpene (8), an acetylenic system (9), two sterols, and sphengolipid, were identified. Their structures were established on the bases of extensive one- and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance and mass measurements, and by comparison with literature data. The antimicrobial activity of the fungal extract and the corresponding compounds were studied using a panel of pathogenic microorganisms, and their in vitro cytotoxicity against the human cervix carcinoma cell line (KB-3-1) was reported as well. The molecular docking of the isolated compounds showed promising affinities for the alkaloidal compounds 4-6 towards α, β tubulins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelaaty Hamed
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany.,Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City-Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Ismail
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany.,Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, Helwan-Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mohammad M El-Metwally
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Damanhour University, Damanhour, Egypt
| | - Marcel Frese
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Tarek M A Ibrahim
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City-Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Atef F El-Haddad
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City-Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Norbert Sewald
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Mohamed Shaaban
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany.,Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, El-Behoos St. 33, Dokki-Cairo 12622, Egypt
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18
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Singh K, Dwivedi GR, Sanket AS, Pati S. Therapeutic Potential of Endophytic Compounds: A Special Reference to Drug Transporter Inhibitors. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:754-783. [DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190412095105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
From the discovery to the golden age of antibiotics (miracle), millions of lives have been saved. The era of negligence towards chemotherapeutic agents gave birth to drug resistance. Among all the regulators of drug resistance, drug transporters are considered to be the key regulators for multidrug resistance. These transporters are prevalent from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. Endophytes are one of the unexplored wealths of nature. Endophytes are a model mutualistic partner of plants. They are the reservoir of novel therapeutics. The present review deals with endophytes as novel drug resistance reversal agents by inhibiting the drug transporters across the genera. This review also focuses on drug transporters, and mutualistic chemical diversity, exploring drug transporter modulating potential of endophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khusbu Singh
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Gaurav Raj Dwivedi
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - A. Swaroop Sanket
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
| | - Sanghamitra Pati
- Microbiology Department, ICMR-Regional Medical Research Centre, Bhubaneswar, India
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19
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He Y, Yuan C, Jiang Z, Shuai L, Xiao Q. Expeditious Synthesis of Isoquinolone Derivatives by Rhodium(I)-Catalyzed Annulation Reaction through C–C Bond Cleavage. Org Lett 2018; 21:185-189. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.8b03653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiyi He
- College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Chengsha Yuan
- College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Zeqi Jiang
- College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Li Shuai
- College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Qing Xiao
- College of Pharmacy, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
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20
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Deshmukh SK, Gupta MK, Prakash V, Saxena S. Endophytic Fungi: A Source of Potential Antifungal Compounds. J Fungi (Basel) 2018; 4:E77. [PMID: 29941838 PMCID: PMC6162562 DOI: 10.3390/jof4030077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The emerging and reemerging forms of fungal infections encountered in the course of allogeneic bone marrow transplantations, cancer therapy, and organ transplants have necessitated the discovery of antifungal compounds with enhanced efficacy and better compatibility. A very limited number of antifungal compounds are in practice against the various forms of topical and systemic fungal infections. The trends of new antifungals being introduced into the market have remained insignificant while resistance towards the introduced drug has apparently increased, specifically in patients undergoing long-term treatment. Considering the immense potential of natural microbial products for the isolation and screening of novel antibiotics for different pharmaceutical applications as an alternative source has remained largely unexplored. Endophytes are one such microbial community that resides inside all plants without showing any symptoms with the promise of producing diverse bioactive molecules and novel metabolites which have application in medicine, agriculture, and industrial set ups. This review substantially covers the antifungal compounds, including volatile organic compounds, isolated from fungal endophytes of medicinal plants during 2013⁻2018. Some of the methods for the activation of silent biosynthetic genes are also covered. As such, the compounds described here possess diverse configurations which can be a step towards the development of new antifungal agents directly or precursor molecules after the required modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil K Deshmukh
- TERI-Deakin Nano Biotechnology Centre, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India.
| | - Manish K Gupta
- TERI-Deakin Nano Biotechnology Centre, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Darbari Seth Block, IHC Complex, Lodhi Road, New Delhi 110003, India.
| | - Ved Prakash
- Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad 211004, India.
| | - Sanjai Saxena
- Department of Biotechnology, Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology, Deemed to be a University, Patiala, Punjab 147004, India.
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21
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Abdalla MA, McGaw LJ. Bioprospecting of South African Plants as a Unique Resource for Bioactive Endophytic Microbes. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:456. [PMID: 29867466 PMCID: PMC5966565 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
South Africa has a long history and strong belief in traditional herbal medicines. Using ethnobotanical knowledge as a lead, a large number of South African medicinal plants have been discovered to possess a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties. In this review, bioprospecting of endophytes is highlighted by following the advantages of the ethnomedicinal approach together with identifying unique medicinal plants where biological activity may be due to endophytes. This review focuses on the current status of South African medicinal plants to motivate the research community to harness the benefits of ethnobotanical knowledge to investigate the presence of endophytic microbes from the most potent South African medicinal plants. The potential chemical diversity and subsequent putative medicinal value of endophytes is deserving of further research. A timely and comprehensive review of literature on recently isolated endophytes and their metabolites was conducted. Worldwide literature from the last 2 years demonstrating the importance of ethnobotanical knowledge as a useful approach to discover endophytic microbes was documented. Information was obtained from scientific databases such as Pubmed, Scopus, Scirus, Google Scholar, Dictionary of Natural Products, Chemical Abstracts Services, official websites, and scientific databases on ethnomedicines. Primary sources such as books, reports, dissertations, and thesises were accessed where available. Recently published information on isolated endophytes with promising bioactivity and their bioactive natural products worldwide (2015-2017) was summarized. The potential value of South African medicinal plants as sources of endophytes is discussed. The insights provided through this study indicate that medicinal plants in South Africa are highly under-investigated sources of potentially useful endophytic microbes. New approaches may be used by medicinal plant scientists for further exploration of natural products from endophytic fungi and bacteria in southern Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lyndy J. McGaw
- Phytomedicine Programme, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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22
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Antibiotic Treatments for Clostridium difficile Infection Are Associated with Distinct Bacterial and Fungal Community Structures. mSphere 2018; 3:mSphere00572-17. [PMID: 29359185 PMCID: PMC5760750 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00572-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is the most common nosocomial infection in the United States, being associated with high recurrence and persistence rates. Though the relationship between intestinal dysbiosis and CDI is well known, it is unclear whether different forms of dysbiosis may potentially affect the course of CDI. How this is further influenced by C. difficile-directed antibiotics is virtually uninvestigated. In this study, diarrheal stool samples were collected from 20 hospitalized patients, half of whom were confirmed to have CDI. Analyzing tissue ex vivo and in duplicate, CDI and non-CDI fecal samples (n = 176) were either not antibiotic treated or treated with metronidazole, vancomycin, or fidaxomicin, the three most common CDI therapies. The microbial community composition, interactions, and predicted metabolic functions were assessed by 16S rRNA gene and internal transcribed spacer sequencing, bipartite network analysis, and phylogenetic investigation of communities by reconstruction of unobserved states. Our results demonstrate that while all C. difficile-directed antibiotics were associated with similar reductions in alpha diversity, beta diversity significantly differed on the basis of the particular antibiotic, with differentiating relative abundances of bacterial and fungal assemblages. With the exception of fidaxomicin, each antibiotic was associated with the emergence of potentially pathogenic fungal operational taxonomic units, with predicted bacterial functions enriched for xenobiotic metabolism that could perpetuate the dysbiosis driving CDI. Toxin-independent mechanisms of colitis related to the relative abundance of pathogenic bacteria and fungi were also noted. This study suggests that a transkingdom interaction between fungi and bacteria may be important in CDI pathophysiology, including being a factor in the historically high persistence and recurrence rates associated with this disease. IMPORTANCE Using human fecal samples and including sequencing for both bacterial and fungal taxa, this study compared the conventional antibiotics used to treat C. difficile infection (CDI) from the perspective of the microbiome, which is particularly relevant, given the relationship between dysbiotic states and the development of CDI. Sequencing and imputed functional analyses suggest that C. difficile-directed antibiotics are associated with distinct forms of dysbiosis that may be influential in the course of CDI. Further, a role for fungal organisms in the perpetuation of the causal dysbiosis of CDI is discussed, suggesting a previously unappreciated, clinically relevant transkingdom interaction that warrants further study.
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