1
|
Three-Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Flow Hydrodynamics and Cohesive Sediment Transport in Enid Lake, Mississippi. GEOSCIENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/geosciences12040160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Enid Lake is one of the largest reservoirs located in Yazoo River Basin, the largest basin in the state of Mississippi. The lake was impounded by Enid Dam on the Yocona River in Yalobusha County and covers an area of 30 square kilometers. It provides significant natural and recreational resources. The soils in this region are highly erodible, resulting in a large amount of fine-grained cohesive sediment discharged into the lake. In this study, a 3D numerical model was developed to simulate the free surface hydrodynamics and transportation of cohesive sediment with a median diameter of 0.0025 to 0.003 mm in Enid Lake. Flow fields in the lake are generally induced by wind and upstream river inflow, and the sediment is also introduced from the inflow during storm events. The general processes of sediment flocculation and settling were considered in the model, and the erosion rate and deposition rate of cohesive sediment were calculated. In this model, the sediment simulation was coupled with flow simulation. In this research, remote sensing technology was applied to estimate the sediment concentration at the lake surface and provide validation data for numerical model simulation. The model results and remote sensing data help us to understand the transport, deposition and resuspension processes of cohesive sediment in large reservoirs due to wind-induced currents and upstream river flows.
Collapse
|
2
|
Figueroa D, Signore A, Araneda O, Contreras HR, Concha M, García C. Toxicity and differential oxidative stress effects on zebrafish larvae following exposure to toxins from the okadaic acid group. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2020; 83:573-588. [PMID: 32686606 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2020.1793046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Okadaic acid-group (OA-group) is a set of lipophilic toxins produced only in seawater by species of the Dinophysis and Prorocentrum genera, and characterized globally by being associated with harmful algal blooms (HABs). The diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1) are the most prevalent toxic analogues making up the OA-group, which jeopardize environmental safety and human health through consumption of hydrobiological organisms contaminated with these toxins that produce diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) syndrome in humans. Consequently, a regulatory limit of 160 μg of OA-group/kg was established for marine resources (bivalves). The aim of this study was to investigate effects varying concentrations of 1-15 μg/ml OA or DTX-1 on toxicity, development, and oxidative damage in zebrafish larvae (Danio rerio). After determining the lethal concentration 50 (LC50) in zebrafish larvae of 10 and 7 μg/ml (24 h) and effective concentration 50 (EC50) of 8 and 6 μg/ml (24 h), different concentrations (5, 6.5, or 8 μg/ml of OA and 4, 4.5, or 6 μg/ml of DTX-1) were used to examine the effects of these toxins on oxidative damage to larvae at different time points between 24 and 120 hpf. Macroscopic evaluation during the exposure period showed alterations in zebrafish including pericardial edema, cyclopia, shortening in the anteroposterior axis, and developmental delay. The activity levels of biochemical biomarkers superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) demonstrated a concentration-dependent decrease while glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR) were markedly elevated. In addition, increased levels of oxidative damage (malondialdehyde and carbonyl content) were detected following toxin exposure. Data demonstrate that high concentrations of OA and DTX-1produced pathological damage in the early stages of development <48 h post-fertilization (hpf) associated with oxidative damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diego Figueroa
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Ailen Signore
- Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Oscar Araneda
- Integrative Laboratory of Biomechanics and Physiology of Effort, Kinesiology School, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Los Andes , Santiago, Chile
| | - Héctor R Contreras
- Department of Basic and Clinical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Miguel Concha
- Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile , Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos García
- Laboratory of Marine Toxins, Physiology and Biophysics Program, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad De Chile , Santiago, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Orr SE, Joshee L, Barkin J, Bridges CC. Disposition of methylmercury over time in a 75% nephrectomized rat model. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2018; 81:349-360. [PMID: 29498598 PMCID: PMC6088791 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2018.1443859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a highly relevant clinical condition that is characterized by the permanent loss of functional nephrons. Individuals with CKD may exhibit impaired renal clearance, which may alter corporal handling of metabolites and xenobiotics. Methylmercury (MeHg) is an important environmental toxicant to which humans are exposed to on a regular basis. Given the prevalence of CKD and ubiquitous presence of MeHg in the environment, it is important to understand how mercuric ions are handled in patients with CKD. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to characterize the disposition of MeHg over time in a rat model of CKD (i.e., 75% nephrectomized (NPX) rats). Control and NPX rats were exposed intravenously (iv) to a non-nephrotoxic dose of MeHg (5 mg/kg) once daily for1, 2, or 3 d and the amount of MeHg in organs, blood, urine, and feces determined. The accumulation of MeHg in kidneys and blood of controls was significantly greater than that of NPX animals. In contrast, MeHg levels in brain and liver of controls were not markedly different from corresponding NPX rats. In all organs examined, accumulation of MeHg increased over the course of exposure, suggesting that urinary and fecal elimination are not sufficient to fully eliminate all mercuric ions. The current findings are important in that the disposition of mercuric ions in rats with normal renal function versus renal insufficiency following exposure to MeHg for a prolonged period differ and need to be taken into account with respect to therapeutic management.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E. Orr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, GA, USA
| | - Lucy Joshee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, GA, USA
| | - Jennifer Barkin
- Department of Community Medicine, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, GA, USA
| | - Christy C. Bridges
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
da Cunha Martins A, Carneiro MFH, Grotto D, Adeyemi JA, Barbosa F. Arsenic, cadmium, and mercury-induced hypertension: mechanisms and epidemiological findings. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2018; 21:61-82. [PMID: 29446707 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2018.1432025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) are toxic elements widely distributed in the environment. Exposure to these elements was attributed to produce several acute and chronic illnesses including hypertension. The aim of this review is to provide a summary of the most frequently proposed mechanisms underlying hypertension associated with As, Cd, and Hg exposure including: oxidative stress, impaired nitric oxide (NO) signaling, modified vascular response to neurotransmitters and disturbed vascular muscle Ca2+ signaling, renal damage, and interference with the renin-angiotensin system. Due to the complexity of the vascular system, a combination rather than a singular mechanism needs to be considered. In addition, epidemiological findings showing the relationship between various biomarkers of metal exposure and hypertension are described. Given the complex etiology of hypertension, further epidemiological studies evaluating the roles of confounding factors such as age, gender, and life style are still necessary.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Airton da Cunha Martins
- a Laboratório de Toxicologia e Essencialidade de Metais, Depto. de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto , Universidade de São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| | - Maria Fernanda Hornos Carneiro
- a Laboratório de Toxicologia e Essencialidade de Metais, Depto. de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto , Universidade de São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| | - Denise Grotto
- b Laboratório de Pesquisa em Toxicologia , Universidade de Sorocaba , Sorocaba-SP , Brazil
| | - Joseph A Adeyemi
- a Laboratório de Toxicologia e Essencialidade de Metais, Depto. de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto , Universidade de São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| | - Fernando Barbosa
- a Laboratório de Toxicologia e Essencialidade de Metais, Depto. de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto , Universidade de São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Pinho AI, Oliveira CS, Lovato FL, Waczuk EP, Piccoli BC, Boligon AA, Leite NF, Coutinho HDM, Posser T, Da Rocha JBT, Franco JL. Antioxidant and mercury chelating activity of Psidium guajava var. pomifera L. leaves hydroalcoholic extract. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2017; 80:1301-1313. [PMID: 29020526 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1382408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) is widely distributed in the environment and is known to produce several adverse effects in organisms. The aim of the present study was to examine the in vitro antioxidant activity and Hg chelating ability of the hydroalcoholic extract of Psidium guajava leaves (HEPG). In addition, the potential protective effects of HEPG against Hg(II) were evaluated using a yeast model (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). HEPG was found to exert significant antioxidant activity in 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl scavenger and inhibition of lipid peroxidation induced by Fe(II) assays in a concentration-dependent manner. The extract also exhibited significant Hg(II) chelating activity. In yeast, Hg(II) induced a significant decrease in cell viability. In contrast, HEPG partially prevented the fall in cell viability induced by Hg(II). In conclusion, HEPG exhibited protective effects against Hg(II)-mediated toxicity, which may be related to both antioxidant and Hg(II)-chelating activities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Ivanildo Pinho
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Cláudia Sirlene Oliveira
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Fabricio Luís Lovato
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Emily Pansera Waczuk
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Bruna Candia Piccoli
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Aline Augusti Boligon
- b Departamento de Farmácia Industrial , Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Nadghia Figueredo Leite
- c Laboratório de Microbiologia e Biologia Molecular , Universidade Regional do Cariri , Crato , CE , Brazil
| | | | - Thais Posser
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
- d Centro Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas em Biotecnologia (CIPBIOTEC) , Universidade Federal do Pampa , São Gabriel , RS , Brazil
| | - João Batista Teixeira Da Rocha
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Jeferson Luis Franco
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas: Bioquímica Toxicológica . Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
- d Centro Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas em Biotecnologia (CIPBIOTEC) , Universidade Federal do Pampa , São Gabriel , RS , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rocha OP, De Oliveira DP. Investigation of a Brazilian tannery effluent by means of zebra fish (Danio rerio) embryo acute toxicity (FET) test. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2017; 80:1078-1085. [PMID: 28862536 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1357356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Tannery effluents consist of a complex chemical composition not only limited to primary pollutants, which also require biological detection as these compounds may produce adverse effects. The fish embryo toxicity (FET) test with Danio rerio is an alternative method in hazard and risk assessment for determination of chemical-mediated effects. The aim of this investigation was to use the FET test to detect compounds and consequent effects in Brazilian tannery effluents. Samples were collected from the inlet and outlet of the effluent treatment plant at a tannery located in Restinga, São Paulo, Brazil. The toxicological effects were assessed using FET assay for a period of 144 hr using indices such as (1) coagulation of fertilized eggs, (2) lack of detachment of tail-bud from yolk sac, (3) absence of spontaneous movement, (4) yolk sack edema, (5) malformation of the tail, (6) scoliosis, and (7) deformation of swim bladder in the embryos. Data showed that effluent treatment plant exposure produced acute toxicity in D. rerio embryos as evidenced by coagulation of fertilized eggs in up to 5% of all diluted samples 24 hr post fertilization for inlet effluent samples compared to 100% coagulation for outlet samples. Results demonstrated that these effects may not be attributed to metals, but to other non-detected components, such as dyes, pigments, biocides, carriers, surfactants, or other organic compounds that might be present in these complex mixtures. The use of D. rerio embryos was found to be useful as an additional tool for ecotoxicity testing to assess the potential environmental acute toxicity influence of tannery effluents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Otávio Pelegrino Rocha
- a Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| | - Danielle Palma De Oliveira
- a Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto , University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto-SP , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Figueiredo NL, Canário J, Serralheiro ML, Carvalho C. Optimization of microbial detoxification for an aquatic mercury-contaminated environment. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2017; 80:788-796. [PMID: 28850004 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1357311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Mercury (Hg) reduction performed by microorganisms is well recognized as a biological means for remediation of contaminated environment. Recently, studies demonstrated that Hg-resistant microorganisms of Tagus Estuary are involved in metal reduction processes. In the present study, aerobic microbial community isolated from a highly Hg-contaminated area of Tagus Estuary was used to determine the optimization of the reduction process in conditions such as the contaminated ecosystem. Factorial design methodology was employed to examine the influence of glucose, sulfate, iron, and chloride on Hg reduction. In the presence of several concentrations of these elements, microbial community reduced Hg in a range of 37-61% of the initial 0.1 mg/ml Hg2+ levels. The response prediction through central composite design showed that the increase of sulfate concentration led to an optimal response in Hg reduction by microbial community, while the rise in chloride levels markedly decreased metal reduction. Iron may exert antagonistic effects depending upon the media composition. These results are useful in understanding the persistence of Hg contamination in Tagus Estuary after inactivation of critical industrial units, as well as data might also be beneficial for development of new bioremediation strategies either in Tagus Estuary and/or in other Hg-contaminated aquatic environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neusa L Figueiredo
- a Department of Toxicological and Food Sciences, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal
| | - João Canário
- b Department of Chemical Engineering, Centro de Química Estrutural , Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Maria Luísa Serralheiro
- c Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Centro de Química e Bioquímica , Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa , Campo Grande , Lisboa , Portugal
| | - Cristina Carvalho
- a Department of Toxicological and Food Sciences, Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy , Universidade de Lisboa , Lisbon , Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Macedo-Júnior SJ, Luiz-Cerutti M, Nascimento DB, Farina M, Soares Santos AR, de Azevedo Maia AH. Methylmercury exposure for 14 days (short-term) produces behavioral and biochemical changes in mouse cerebellum, liver, and serum. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2017; 80:1145-1155. [PMID: 28850017 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2017.1357324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Various studies on methylmercury (MeHg)-induced toxicity focused on the central nervous system (CNS) as a primary target. However, MeHg-mediated toxicity is related to metallic interaction with electrophilic groups, which are not solely restricted to the CNS, but these reactive groups are present ubiquitously in several systems/organs. The aim of this study was thus to examine MeHg-induced systemic toxicity in mice using a standardized neurotoxicology testing exposure model to measure cerebellar neurotoxicity by determining biochemical and behavioral parameters in the cerebellum. After 2 weeks exposure to MeHg (40 µg/ml; diluted in drinking water; ad libitum), adult male Swiss mice showed a marked motor impairment characteristic of cerebellar toxicity as noted in the following tests: rotarod, beam walking, pole, and hind limb clasping. MeHg treatment resulted in Hg deposition in the cerebellum as well as reduction in cerebellar weight, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity, and interleukin (IL)-6 levels. MeHg ingestion increased cerebellar glutathione reductase (GR) activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. In addition to cerebellar toxicity, MeHg treatment also elevated total and non-high density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol levels, as well as serum aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) enzymatic activities, systemic parameters. Increased liver weight and reduced serum urea levels were also noted in MeHg-exposed mice. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that a well-standardized exposure protocol to examine MeHg-induced neurotoxicity also produced systemic toxicity in mice, which was characterized by changes in markers of hepatic function as well as serum lipid homeostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sérgio José Macedo-Júnior
- a Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia, Departamento de Farmacologia , Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina , Florianópolis , SC , Brazil
| | - Murilo Luiz-Cerutti
- b Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas , Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina , Florianópolis , SC , Brazil
| | - Denise B Nascimento
- c Departamento de Química, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas , Universidade Federal de Santa Maria , Santa Maria , RS , Brazil
| | - Marcelo Farina
- d Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas , Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina , Florianópolis , SC , Brazil
| | - Adair Roberto Soares Santos
- b Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Centro de Ciências Biológicas , Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina , Florianópolis , SC , Brazil
| | - Alcíbia Helena de Azevedo Maia
- e Departamento de Patologia, Centro de Ciências da Saúde , Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina , Florianópolis , SC , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Bridges CC, Zalups RK. The aging kidney and the nephrotoxic effects of mercury. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2017; 20:55-80. [PMID: 28339347 PMCID: PMC6088787 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2016.1243501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Owing to advances in modern medicine, life expectancies are lengthening and leading to an increase in the population of older individuals. The aging process leads to significant alterations in many organ systems, with the kidney being particularly susceptible to age-related changes. Within the kidney, aging leads to ultrastructural changes such as glomerular and tubular hypertrophy, glomerulosclerosis, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, which may compromise renal plasma flow (RPF) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR). These alterations may reduce the functional reserve of the kidneys, making them more susceptible to pathological events when challenged or stressed, such as following exposure to nephrotoxicants. An important and prevalent environmental toxicant that induces nephrotoxic effects is mercury (Hg). Since exposure of normal kidneys to mercuric ions might induce glomerular and tubular injury, aged kidneys, which may not be functioning at full capacity, may be more sensitive to the effects of Hg than normal kidneys. Age-related renal changes and the effects of Hg in the kidney have been characterized separately. However, little is known regarding the influence of nephrotoxicants, such as Hg, on aged kidneys. The purpose of this review was to summarize known findings related to exposure of aged and diseased kidneys to the environmentally relevant nephrotoxicant Hg.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christy C Bridges
- a Mercer University School of Medicine , Division of Basic Medical Sciences , Macon , Georgia , USA
| | - Rudolfs K Zalups
- a Mercer University School of Medicine , Division of Basic Medical Sciences , Macon , Georgia , USA
| |
Collapse
|