Prevalence of and attitudes about distracted driving in college students

Assessing the determinants of crash propensity using structural equation modeling: Role of distractions caused by fellow drivers

INTRODUCTION

Aggressive behavior of drivers is a source of crashes and high injury severity. Aggressive drivers are part of the driving environment, however, excessive aggressive driving by fellow drivers may take the attention of the recipient drivers away from the road resulting in distracted driving. Such external distractions caused by the aggressive and discourteous behavior of other road users have received limited attention. These distractions caused by fellow drivers (DFDs) may agitate recipient drivers and ultimately increase crash propensity. Aggressive driving behaviors are quite common in South Asia and, thus, it is necessary to determine their contribution to distractions and crash propensity.

METHOD

Our study aimed to evaluate the effects of DFDs using primary data collected through a survey conducted in Lahore, Pakistan. A total of 801 complete responses were obtained. Various hypotheses were defined to explore the associations between the latent factors such as DFDs, anxiety/stress (AS), anxiety-based performance deficits (APD), hostile behavior (HB), acceptability of vehicle-related distractions (AVRD), and crash propensity (CP). Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was employed as a multivariate statistical technique to test these hypotheses.

RESULTS

The results supported the hypothesis that DFDs lead to AS among recipient drivers. DFDs and AS were further found to have positive associations with APDs. Whereas, there was a significant negative association between DFD, AS, and AVRD. As hypothesized, DFD and AS had positive associations with CP, indicating that distractions caused by aggressive behaviors leads to stress and consequently enhances crash propensity.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The results of this study provide a statistically sound foundation for further exploration of the distractions caused by the aggressive behaviors of fellow drivers. Further, the results of this study can be utilized by the relevant authorities to alter aggressive driving behaviors and reduce DFDs.

Unraveling the differences in distracted driving injury severities in passenger car, sport utility vehicle, pickup truck, and minivan crashes

Distracted driving poses a significant risk on the roadway users, with the level of distraction and crash outcomes varying depending on the type of vehicle. Drivers of passenger cars, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), pickup trucks, minivans experience distinct levels of distraction, leading to potential crashes. This study investigates into the severity of driver injuries resulting from distracted driving in these vehicle categories, shedding light on the variations in single-vehicle crashes. Focusing on single-vehicle crashes in Florida during 2019, involving passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans caused by distracted driving, the study examines various distractions such as, electronic communication devices (cell phones), electronic devices (navigation systems, music players), internal and external disturbances, texting, and inattentive driving. To analyze the severity of injuries resulting from distracted driving in passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans, the study employs random parameter multinomial logit models with heterogeneity in means and variances. The model estimates highlight thirty-five significant factors influencing the severity of driver injuries resulting from distracted driving. Notably, the impact of these factors varies significantly depending on the vehicle type (i.e., passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans). While many explanatory variables are specific to each vehicle type, only one factor (restraint belt usage) is common across all vehicle types, with varying magnitudes in injury outcomes. The likelihood ratio tests indicate that injury severity must be analyzed and modeled separately for passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans. Vehicle characteristics play a crucial role in driver distraction and crash outcomes. Analyzing a year of crash data, categorized by four vehicle types, has provided valuable insights into distracted driving patterns in passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans, influencing potential prevention strategies. To combat against distracted driving effectively, priority should be given to driver education and training, roadway design, vehicle technology, enforcement, and automobile insurance. The automobile industry, especially for passenger cars, SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans, should consider implementing advanced in-vehicle technologies tailored to the specific characteristics of each vehicle type (e.g., advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)) to proactively prevent driver distraction. These proactive measures will contribute significantly to enhancing road safety and reducing the risks associated with distracted driving.

"It's okay because I'm just driving": an exploration of self-reported mobile phone use among Mexican drivers

Introduction

Technological advancements have the potential to enhance people's quality of life, but their misuse can have a detrimental impact on safety. A notable example is the escalating issue of distracted driving resulting from the use of mobile phones behind the wheel, leading to severe crashes and injuries. Despite these concerns, both drivers' usage patterns and their risk-related associations remain scarcely documented in Mexico. Therefore, this descriptive study aimed to examine the mobile phone usage of Mexican drivers, its relationships to risk awareness and near-miss/crash involvement, and the self-reported underlying reasons for this behavior.

Methods

This cross-sectional study utilized a sample of 1,353 licensed Mexican drivers who took part in a nationwide series of interviews regarding their onboard phone use settings.

Results

A significant percentage of drivers (96.8%) recognize using a mobile phone while driving as high-risk behavior. However, only 7.4% reported completely avoiding its use while driving, with 22.4% identified as high-frequency users. Frequency was also found positively associated with the self-reported rate of near-misses and crashes. Furthermore, qualitative data analysis highlights the emergence of a 'sense of urgency' to attend to phone-related tasks in response to daily demands and life dynamics, offering a potential explanation for this behavior.

Conclusion

The results of this study suggest common patterns of onboard mobile use among Mexican drivers concerning driving situations and associated risks. This underscores the need for increased efforts to discourage onboard phone use in the country.

Prevalence of distracted driving by driver characteristics in the United States

INTRODUCTION

Distracted driving is a long-standing traffic safety concern, though common secondary tasks continually evolve. The goal of this study was to measure the prevalence of self-reported distracted driving behaviors, including activities made possible in recent years by smartphones.

METHODS

We conducted a nationwide survey of 2,013 U.S. licensed drivers (ages 16 +). We created four aggregate distraction categories from 18 individual secondary tasks to estimate the proportion of drivers study-wide and by demographic characteristics belonging to each category, defined as those who regularly did (during most or all drives in the previous 30 days) one or more secondary task within each category. Logistic regression estimated the adjusted odds of drivers belonging to each aggregate distraction category by demographic characteristics.

RESULTS

Sixty-five percent of drivers reported doing at least one of the 18 secondary tasks regularly, and half did at least one device-based task regularly in the past 30 days. Non-device task prevalence trended downward with age, while device-based task prevalence was consistent among younger drivers before declining beginning with age 35. Males (OR, 1.53; 95% CI, 1.16, 2.02), parents of children ages 18 and younger (OR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.10, 1.96), and participants who drive in the gig economy (OR, 3.85; 95% CI, 2.73, 5.43) had higher adjusted odds of engaging in "modern" device-based distractions enabled by smartphones (e.g., making video calls, watching videos, using social media) than other drivers. Many drivers are using hands-free capabilities when available for tasks, but for some tasks more than others.

CONCLUSIONS

Regular distracted driving is widespread with most behavior concentrated among drivers younger than age 50, though no age group or other demographic studied abstains.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Stakeholders can use these findings to develop countermeasures for distracted driving by targeting specific secondary tasks and the demographics most likely to report regularly doing them.

Evaluating the Impact of a Multifaceted Distracted Driving Prevention Program

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to evaluate undergraduate college students' attitude changes toward distracted driving after participating in a multifaceted distracted driving prevention program.

METHODS

This study used a quasi-experimental, pre- post-test design. Participants were undergraduate college students who were aged 18 or older and had a valid driver's license. The Questionnaire Assessing Distracted Driving was used to measure participants' attitudes and behaviors. All participants completed the entire Questionnaire Assessing Distracted Driving survey and then participated in the distracted driving prevention program that consisted of a 10-minute narrated recorded PowerPoint lecture followed by a distracted driving simulation. Descriptive statistics were calculated to describe the study sample. The Questionnaire Assessing Distracted Driving data were analyzed to ascertain any statistically significant changes in responses from pre- to postintervention.

RESULTS

From pre- to post-test, there were statistically significant increases in the number of participants who reported they would tell friends to stop texting and driving if they were a passenger, refrain from texting while driving, and wait until reaching home before retrieving their cell phones from the floor of the vehicle. Participants perceived a greater threat from drivers talking on phones or texting/emailing from pre- to post-test. Moreover, attitudes toward talking on a handheld device, talking on a hands-free phone, and texting/emailing became more negative from pre- to post-test.

CONCLUSION

The intervention helped promote negative attitudes toward distracted driving in a sample of college students immediately after participating in a distracted driving prevention program.

Distracted Driving Behavior Among Adults in the Perambalur District: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background Distracted driving is a major public health concern. Distraction results in reduced speed control, lateral lane position, reduced situational awareness, and impaired response times to roadway hazards. Visual, cognitive, and manual distractions impair drivers in different ways. With the above background, this study was conducted with the objective of estimating the proportion of distracted driving behavior and its predictors among the adult population in the Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu, India, by using the Total Distracted Driving Scale. Materials and methods A cross-sectional study was conducted among 403 adults aged 18 years and above by convenience sampling technique in the Perambalur district for six months. A pretested, semi-structured proforma was used to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics such as age, sex, education, and occupation. To quantify distracted driving behavior, the Total Distracted Driving Scale was used. This scale contains seven questions about talking on the phone, five questions about texting, and five questions about using specific devices while driving. Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 21. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the distracted driving behavior with respect to each variable, and to find out the significance, a corresponding statistical test was employed. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results The mean age of the study participants was 24.86 ± 10.63 years. More than half of the study subjects (52.4 percent) were females, and around 87.3 percent of them were Hindu by religion. Among the study participants, around 66.74 percent mentioned that they had used a cell phone while driving. Around 38 percent of the study participants admitted that they had been in or were near-crash circumstances during the past year. Around 87 percent of the study participants who had a crash or near-crash in the past year admitted that they had been distracted while driving. On primary analysis, religion of individuals and increased driving frequency had a statistically significant association with a history of distracted driving. Study participants who were using three- and four-wheelers and those who used cellphones while driving had a statistically significant association with a history of distracted driving. According to the regression, cell phone users are 3.915 times more distracted than those who do not use cellphones (p = 0.001). Subjects with a history of crashes or near-crashes were 56.96 times more distracted than those without a history (p < 0.001). Conclusion In the present study, three-fourths of the study population used a cell phone while driving. More than three-fourths of the study participants admitted that they had been in a crash or near-crash circumstances during the past year. Distracted driving was responsible for four-fifths of all crashes or near-collisions. Use of a cell phone while driving and a history of near-crashes have a higher risk of distraction than those who do not.

Distraction "Hangover": Characterization of the Delayed Return to Baseline Driving Risk After Distracting Behaviors

OBJECTIVE

We measured how long distraction by a smartphone affects simulated driving behaviors after the tasks are completed (i.e., the distraction hangover).

BACKGROUND

Most drivers know that smartphones distract. Trying to limit distraction, drivers can use hands-free devices, where they only briefly glance at the smartphone. However, the cognitive cost of switching tasks from driving to communicating and back to driving adds an underappreciated, potentially long period to the total distraction time.

METHOD

Ninety-seven 21- to 78-year-old individuals who self-identified as active drivers and smartphone users engaged in a simulated driving scenario that included smartphone distractions. Peripheral-cue and car-following tasks were used to assess driving behavior, along with synchronized eye tracking.

RESULTS

The participants' lateral speed was larger than baseline for 15 s after the end of a voice distraction and for up to 25 s after a text distraction. Correct identification of peripheral cues dropped about 5% per decade of age, and participants from the 71+ age group missed seeing about 50% of peripheral cues within 4 s of the distraction. During distraction, coherence with the lead car in a following task dropped from 0.54 to 0.045, and seven participants rear-ended the lead car. Breadth of scanning contracted by 50% after distraction.

CONCLUSION

Simulated driving performance drops dramatically after smartphone distraction for all ages and for both voice and texting.

APPLICATION

Public education should include the dangers of any smartphone use during driving, including hands-free.

Does framing an assignment as involving one or multiple components influence subjective experiences of attentional engagement?

Across two studies, we explored whether framing an assignment as involving either multitasking or single-tasking (Srna et al. Psychol Sci 29(12):1942-1955, 2018) leads to differences in both subjective ratings of attentional engagement (i.e., depth of concentration and attentional control) and performance during the assignment. In Experiment 1, we manipulated task framing in the context of an assignment in which participants (N_collected = 238) simultaneously completed a word-search and an anagram task (Srna et al. Psychol Sci 29(12):1942-1955, 2018). While we replicated prior findings that participants who receive multitasking instructions perform better than those who receive single-tasking instructions, we did not find any influence of task framing on participants' subjective evaluations of their attentional engagement. Exploratory analyses, however, revealed that regardless of group assignment, those who believed they were multitasking reported greater levels of attentional engagement than those who believed they were single-tasking. In Experiment 2 (N_collected = 238), task framing was varied in the context of the 2-back task (Kirchner J Exp Psychol 55(4): 352, 1958). Unexpectedly, we found that, relative to participants who received single-tasking instructions, those who received multitasking instructions reported exerting less attentional control over their thoughts and showed a greater number of incorrect responses to non-target trials on the 2-back. Taken together, the results do not support a straightforward conclusion regarding the influence of task framing on either subjective reports of attentional engagement or task performance. Nevertheless, they provide insight into our understanding of the role of task framing in contexts ranging from commonly performed real-world tasks to typical laboratory tasks.

Distraction impairs drivers of all ages: A cross-sectional analysis of fatal crashes in the United States

Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the association between distracted driving and crash responsibility across the whole age span after adjusting for several driver characteristics and the potential influence of alcohol and drugs.Methods: Using data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System for the years 2010 to 2019, we estimated the association between distracted driving and crash responsibility in drivers (of passenger-type vehicles) aged 20 and older, with a confirmed blood alcohol concentration of zero, and who tested negative for drugs (n = 33,513). We operationalized crash responsibility as having one or more unsafe driving action (UDA) recorded.Results: In total, slightly under 9% of the drivers examined were coded as distracted. The most common UDA among distracted drivers was a failure to yield right of way (23.4% vs. 14.2% for non-distracted drivers). Driving distracted was associated with higher odds of an UDA for drivers of all ages (overall OR = 1.46, 95% CI = 1.24, 1.73).Conclusions: Distracted driving affects drivers of all ages. Given that distracted driving is highly preventable, we must increase our prevention efforts.

Boredom and Media Multitasking

Media multitasking entails simultaneously engaging in multiple tasks when at least one of the tasks involves media (e.g., online activities and streaming videos). Across two studies, we investigated one potential trigger of media multitasking, state boredom, and its relation to media multitasking. To this end, we manipulated participants' levels of state boredom using video mood inductions prior to administering an attention-demanding 2-back task during which participants could media multitask by playing a task-irrelevant video. We also examined whether trait boredom proneness was associated media multitasking. We found no direct evidence that state boredom leads to media multitasking. However, trait boredom proneness correlated with greater amounts of media multitasking in Experiment 1, but not in Experiment 2. Surprisingly, in both experiments, post-task ratings of state boredom were equivalent across conditions, alerting us to the short-lived effects of video mood inductions and the boring nature of cognitive tasks.

Deterring illegal smartphone use while driving: Are perceptions of risk information associated with the impact of informal sanctions?

Advertising campaigns have used threat appeals to increase the perceptions of risk associated with dangerous driving behaviours. Building on recent research that suggests increasing the pertinence of informal sanctions (sense of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others) decreases the likelihood of illegal smartphone engagement while driving, this study aimed to determine if perceptions of risk information, that is, how effective drivers believe the information is in deterring their illegal use, is associated with perceptions of informal sanctions. An online survey of 1027 Victorians who self-reported illegal smartphone use while driving asked participants to rate the personal deterrent effectiveness of five types of risks associated with illegal smartphone use while driving. A hierarchical linear regression model explored the associations between the most effective risks and each informal sanction. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to experience guilt, fear of social loss and fear of physical loss when using their smartphones illegally. More frequent illegal smartphone engagement while driving was associated with decreased impact of informal sanctions. Female drivers were more likely than male drivers to perceive each risk as effective. The most effective piece of information was, "Contributes to 16% of Victorian road deaths and serious injuries annually"; it was also the least known (32.7% males, 26.7% females). This message, alongside, "Increases risk of a crash comparable to those associated with driving under the influence of alcohol or cannabis" and, "A 2 s glance at your phone while driving at 50 km/h effectively means driving blind for 27 m", were associated with stronger perceptions of guilt, fear of peer disapproval, or fear of hurting oneself and others when thinking about using a smartphone illegally while driving. These results suggest tailoring and targeting these specific risk information may be effective in deterring illegal smartphone use while driving.

Distracted Driving and Driving Patterns in Older Drivers With Glaucoma

Limited research exists examining self-perceived vision and driving ability among individuals with glaucoma, and this study assessed the relationship between glaucoma, visual field, and visual acuity with driving capability.

137 individuals with glaucoma and 75 healthy controls were asked to evaluate self-rated vision, self-perceived driving ability, and self-perceived distracted driving. Visual acuity and visual field measurements were also obtained. Multivariable linear regressions were run to test each visual measure with driving outcomes.

The average age was 72.2 years, 57.3% were male, and 72.5% were White. There were significant associations for a one-point increase in visual field and quality of corrected vision (RR = 1.06; 95% CI = 1.03–1.10), day vision (RR = 1.05; 95% CI = 1.03–1.08), night vision (RR = 1.08; 95% CI = 1.05–1.13), visual acuity score and higher quality of corrected of vision (RR = .41; 95% CI = .22-.77), day vision (RR = .39; 95% CI=.22–.71), and night vision (RR = .41; 95% CI = .18–.94); visual acuity score and ability to drive safely compared to other drivers your age (RR = .53; 95% CI = .29–.96).

Individuals with poorer visual acuity and visual fields rate their vision and ability to drive lower than those with better vision, and this information will allow clinicians to understand where to target interventions to enhance safe driving practices.

“Just One Short Voice Message”—Comparing the Effects of Text- vs. Voice-Based Answering to Text Messages via Smartphone on Young Drivers’ Driving Performances

Despite the well-known distracting effects, many drivers still engage in phone use, especially texting and especially among young drivers, with new emerging messaging modes. The present study aims to examine the effects of different answering modes on driving performance. Twenty-four students (12 females), aged between 19 and 25 years (M = 20.83, SD = 1.53), volunteered for the study. They accomplished the Lane Change Task (LCT) with baseline and dual-task runs in a driving simulator. In dual-task runs, participants answered text messages on a smartphone by voice or text message with varying task complexity. Driving performance was measured by lane deviation (LCT) and subjective measures (NASA-TLX). Across all trials, driving performance deteriorated during dual-task runs compared with the baseline runs, and subjective demand increased. Analysis of dual-task runs showed a benefit for voice-based answering to received text messages that leveled off in the complex task. All in all, the benefits of using voice-based answering in comparison with text-based answering were found regarding driving performance and subjective measures. Nevertheless, this benefit was mostly lost in the complex task, and both the driving performance and the demand measured in the baseline conditions could not be reached.

Assessment of the Influence of Technology-Based Distracted Driving on Drivers' Infractions and Their Subsequent Impact on Traffic Accidents Severity

Multitasking while driving negatively affects driving performance and threatens people’s lives every day. Moreover, technology-based distractions are among the top driving distractions that are proven to divert the driver’s attention away from the road and compromise their safety. This study employs recent data on road traffic accidents that occurred in Spain and uses a machine-learning algorithm to analyze, in the first place, the influence of technology-based distracted driving on drivers’ infractions considering the gender and age of the drivers and the zone and the type of vehicle. It assesses, in the second place, the impact of drivers’ infractions on the severity of traffic accidents. Findings show that (i) technology-based distractions are likely to increase the probability of committing aberrant infractions and speed infractions; (ii) technology-based distracted young drivers are more likely to speed and commit aberrant infractions; (iii) distracted motorcycles and squad riders are found more likely to speed; (iv) the probability of committing infractions by distracted drivers increases on streets and highways; and, finally, (v) drivers’ infractions lead to serious injuries.

The Impact of an Educational Intervention on Distracted Driving Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors Among College Students

Distracted driving indiscriminately kills nearly 3500 people each year with young adults having greater risks associated with this phenomenon. Prevention programs targeting the distracted driving habits of young adults are necessary to ameliorate the high costs, both in dollars and in lives, associated with this behavior. Few health education and prevention programs have been assessed for their effectiveness in changing knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to distracted driving. This study explores a distracted driving intervention among undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory public health course. A quasi-experimental study design was used to compare the pre- and post-data of the group receiving 5-weeks of a distracted driving intervention to a control group. Questionnaires were administered to both groups prior to and 2 weeks following the intervention to assess changes in knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to distracted driving. A Difference-in-Difference technique showed significant changes in knowledge (β = 0.40, p = 0.03) and total scores (β = 2.48, p = 0.04) in the intervention (n = 97) compared to the control (n = 131). T-tests examining pre- and post-scores for individual behaviors showed the intervention group displayed positive changes for some behaviors (talking, texting, cellphone use, grooming) compared to the control. The results support the impact that a classroom-based distracted driving intervention can have on undergraduate college students. Implications for this type of health education program may lead to improvements in distracted driving attitudes and behavior among this age-group.

A survey of distracted driving and electronic device use among app-based and taxi drivers

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to identify, characterize and compare attitudes, beliefs, behaviors and other factors related to electronic device (ED) use and distracted driving (DD) among taxi and app-based drivers.

METHODS

A survey among drivers in San Diego and across the United States was used to collect self-reported attitudes and behaviors among taxi and app-based passenger-carrying drivers from October 1, 2016 to January 31, 2017. Chi-square or Fisher's exact test was used to assess the difference between sociodemographics, ED use, ED use attitudes, and citation and crash history by driver type. Prevalence ratios were assessed for differences in ED use and ED use attitudes by driver type using Poisson regression models with robust error variance and a log link function. The final models adjusted for age, sex, level of experience, education and English fluency. All analyses were performed using SAS version 9.4.

RESULTS

Of the 175 drivers that met eligibility criteria, 131 reported driving for app-based services and 44 identified as taxi drivers. Compared to taxi drivers, app-based drivers were more likely to be female, native English speaking, and have fewer than 3 years of experience in the transportation business. All drivers reported at least one type of DD while the car was in motion. App-based drivers were significantly more likely to use a smartphone while driving (adjusted prevalence ratio (APR): 1.42), report that while driving it is safe or very safe to accept a call (APR: 1.73), receive/respond to a passenger request (APR: 3.40), or process a payment (APR: 5.39). Taxi drivers were more likely to either receive a citation for ED use (31.8% v 7.6%, p < 0.001) or be in a collision while using ED (29.6% v 4.6%, p < 0.001). Almost all drivers who received a citation or who were involved in a crash reported becoming somewhat or significantly more cautious about using ED while driving.

CONCLUSIONS

Drivers in the small passenger-carrying transportation industry engage in DD frequently due to occupational demands. Given the known increased crash risk with DD, effective policies and interventions for app-based and taxi drivers are needed.

Driving contradictions: behaviors and attitudes regarding handheld and hands-free cellphone use while driving among young drivers

Background

Cellphone use while driving (CUWD) is a frequent source of distraction for young drivers. These distractions commonly lead to motor vehicle crashes and, in some cases, death. Crash risk differs depending on if the driver is engaging in handheld or hands-free CUWD. This pilot study sought to investigate the differences between handheld versus hands-free CUWD behaviors in younger drivers and the attitudes and social norms that inform them.

Methods

Young drivers (mean age: 19.6 years, standard deviation: 0.8 years) were recruited from a large Midwestern city in the United States as part of a pilot study. The 62 enrolled drivers (51 females, 43 non-Hispanic white) completed an online survey measuring behavioral frequencies, attitudes, and social norms regarding talking on the phone, sending messages, and reading messages. These cross-sectional data were then categorized and used for a descriptive analysis.

Results

The majority of young drivers reported participating in some form of handheld CUWD, with reading messages being the most popular (95%). Only 43% of participants used hands-free technology for sending messages and 30% for reading messages, while half reported not using the technology at all. Whereas handheld messaging behaviors were viewed negatively by the participants, they were unsure of the impact on their driving ability and the legality surrounding hands-free messaging behaviors.

Conclusions

Handheld CUWD behaviors were more popular among young drivers compared to hands-free CUWD. Further, even though young drivers understood handheld cellphone use while driving is unsafe, they engaged in it anyway. The findings of this pilot study highlight the importance of better educational initiatives and optimizing hands-free interventions for young driver use cases.

Mobile phone use while driving: Development and validation of knowledge, attitude, and practice survey instruments

INTRODUCTION

Instruments that assess the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of mobile phone use serve as a primary assessment tool on which mobile phone distracted driving interventions can be designed. The objective of this study is to develop and validate KAP-modeled survey instruments that measure the knowledge of mobile phone hazards while driving (KMPHD), the attitude of drivers towards mobile phone use while driving (AMPUD), and the practice of mobile phone use while driving (PMPUD).

METHOD

This study was a cross-sectional analytical survey conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria. Three instruments were designed to measure KMPHD, AMPUD, and PMPUD. Content validity, item analysis, exploratory factor analysis were conducted, and items were excluded based on the collective results of the analysis. The domains of the constructs and the reliability of the instruments are reported. A confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess the regression weights of each item and the model fit.

RESULTS

From an original list of 13, 12, and 10 items in the KMPHD, AMPUD, and PMPUD instruments, a final list of 7, 5, and 7 items were generated in each survey instrument, respectively. Two domains of the knowledge of hazards and practice of mobile phone use were obtained, and attitude to phone use while driving was a single domain. The reliabilities (Cronbach alpha) of the KMPHD (0.881), AMPUD (0.954), and PMPUD (0.920) were sufficiently high. Also, all items in the three instruments had moderate-to-high regression coefficients, and the model fits of the instruments were good.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides KAP-modeled survey instruments that can be used to assess a population-based knowledge, attitude, and practice of mobile phone use while driving. Practical Applications: This survey instrument can be used in assessing baseline knowledge, attitude, and practice of phone use while driving and determine the focus and effectiveness of mobile phone-induced distracted driving interventions.

Mobile phone use while driving: Prevalence, task management strategies, risk perception and attitude among Qassim University students

Background:

Globally, motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) cause around 1.35 million deaths annually. Distracted driving, a risk factor for MVA, includes diversion of attention from driving because of use of mobile phone.

Objectives:

The aim of this study was to determine prevalence of mobile phone use and to explore task management strategies, risk perception and attitude towards mobile phone use while driving among Qassim University students.

Methods:

An online cross-sectional survey among 212 randomly selected medical (n = 83) and engineering students (n = 129) of Qassim University, Saudi Arabia, through semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire, designed using Google forms. The survey was conducted from February to March 2020.

Results:

The overall prevalence of mobile phone use while driving was 93.4% (medical students: 96.4%; engineering students: 91.5%). Around 49.5% participants 'often' or 'always' used mobile phone while driving. Among task management strategies, 169 (79.7%) participants were 'likely' or 'very likely' to lower their driving speed while 90 (42.5%) were 'likely' or 'very likely' to increase control over the steering while using mobile phone during driving. Regarding risk perception, 173 (81.6%) participants thought that they were 'unlikely' or 'very unlikely' to have MVA on looking at phone continuously for more than 2 s, and 185 (87.3%) participants thought that they were 'unlikely' or 'very unlikely' to have MVA by texting or browsing while driving. Thirty-six (17%) participants reported MVA because of distraction by mobile phone use while driving.

Conclusion:

High prevalence of mobile phone use during driving and low perceived risk of experiencing MVA because of mobile phone use was found among Qassim University students. Creating awareness on risks of mobile phone use while driving is recommended.

Mitigating Teen Driver Distraction: In-Vehicle Feedback Based on Peer Social Norms

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback based on peer social norms in mitigating teen driver distraction.

BACKGROUND

Distraction is a significant problem among teen drivers. Research into the use of in-vehicle technologies to mitigate this issue has been limited. In particular, there is a need to study whether social norms interventions provided through in-vehicle feedback can be effective. Peers are important social referents for teens; thus, normative intervention based on this group is promising. Socially proximal referents have a greater influence on behavior; thus, tailoring peer norm feedback based on gender may provide additional benefits.

METHOD

In this study, 57 teens completed a driving simulator experiment while performing a secondary task in three between-subject conditions: (a) postdrive feedback incorporating same-gender peer norms, (b) postdrive feedback incorporating opposite-gender peer norms, and (c) no feedback. Feedback involved information based on descriptive norms (what others do).

RESULTS

Teens' self-reported frequency of distraction engagement was positively correlated with their perceptions of their peers' engagement in and approval of distractions. Feedback based on peer norms was effective in reducing distraction engagement and improving driving performance, with no difference between same- and opposite-gender feedback.

CONCLUSION/APPLICATION

Feedback based on peer norms can help mitigate driver distraction among teens. Tailoring social norms feedback to teen gender appears to not provide any additional benefits. Longer-term effectiveness in real-world settings should be investigated.

Examining driver distraction in the context of driving speed: An observational study using disruptive technology and naturalistic data

Considering the number of people who have been involved in crashes associated with driver distractions, it is important to understand the characteristics of distracted driving on public roadways. While experiments have indicated that driver distractions are associated with slower driving speeds, the methodologies tend to have limited external validity. Observational studies are often conducted under limited circumstances - be it time or location. Therefore, in order to better understand the nature of driver distractions, the authors investigated the relationships between driving speed, posted speed limits, and phone handling frequency through naturalistic driving data obtained (via disruptive technology) from 8,240 mobile application users on state-maintained highways throughout Texas. As a measure of manual distractions, a phone handling rate (PHR; times/hours driven) was calculated based on phone rotations. Within-subject comparisons were drawn for driving speed and posted speed limits under normal driving conditions and distracted conditions. The analysis revealed a strong negative correlation between PHR and driving speed (r_s = -0.87). Paired t-tests revealed significantly lower driving speeds (p = 0.000 < 0.01, d = -0.48, η = 0.69) and posted speed limits (p = 0.000 < 0.01, d = -0.20, η = 0.42) during phone handling events when compared to driving without phone handling. On average, users drove 3.26 mph slower in distracted conditions than in undistracted conditions. Driving speed had a larger effect size than posted speed limits. The findings were in line with existing theories and experiments as well as other observational studies conducted at fixed locations. Although this research did not reveal causal relations, it is noteworthy that speed reduction with manual distractions was observed under real road conditions. Spatial analyses are recommended to conduct in order to paint a more thorough picture of speed reduction, its relationship to space, and crash risks related to distracted driving.

Hazard Warning Systems to Improve Young Distracted Drivers’ Hazard Perception Skills

Texting while driving has been shown to impair driving performance with the greatest probability of leading to an accident. This is a great concern with young and inexperienced drivers, who are reported to be the most prolific users of texting while driving and are disproportionately involved in car crashes as compared to their experienced and older counterparts. Hazard Warning Systems (HWSs) have been researched to reduce distracted driving and improve driving performance. The first purpose of this study is to showcase a game-based, multi-player, online simulated training (GMOST) application with an integrated HWS. The second is to examine whether such an HWS integrated into the GMOST improves young and inexperienced drivers’ hazard perception skills, as measured by hazard reaction time (HRT) and horizontal road scanning (HS). A total of 22 high school students from a private school participated in this study. To determine the effects of HWS, a 2 × 2 ANOVA and a 2 × 2 MANOVA were run. The results of this study suggest that the GMOST with integrated HWS leads to earlier detection and reaction to hazards as well as wider HS by novice drivers. Therefore, this study reports that HWSs improve novice distracted drivers’ hazard perception skills. Accordingly, a wide-spread use of the GMOST-like training applications by novice drivers would be a proactive approach to lower accident rates caused by texting while driving.

Mobile Telephone Use and Reaction Time in Drivers With Glaucoma

IMPORTANCE

Combining mobile telephone use with driving is not unusual. However, distracted driving limits driving performance because of limited capacity for persons to divide attention.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the frequency of mobile telephone use while driving and to assess whether patients with glaucoma had a disproportionate decrease in driving performance while conversing on a mobile telephone compared with healthy participants.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Cross-sectional study of surveys collected from 112 patients with glaucoma and 70 control participants investigating mobile telephone use while driving. A randomly selected subgroup of 37 patients with glaucoma and 28 controls drove in a driving simulator to investigate peripheral event detection performance during distracted driving at the Visual Performance Laboratory, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. Data collection was performed from December 1, 2016, through April 30, 2017.

EXPOSURES

Participants answered a survey and submitted to a driving simulation test with and without mobile telephone use.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Survey answers were collected, and distracted driving performance, assessed by reaction time to peripheral stimuli, was analyzed.

RESULTS

Of the 182 participants who answered the survey, the 112 participants with glaucoma included 56 women (50.0%) and had a mean (SD) age of 73.6 (9.6) years. The 70 controls included 49 women (70.0%) and had a mean (SD) age of 68.4 (10.9) years. When asked about mobile telephone use while driving, 30 patients with glaucoma (26.8%) admitted rarely using and 2 (1.8%) sometimes using it. In the control group, 20 participants (28.6%) admitted rarely using and 2 (2.9%) sometimes using the telephone while driving (P = .80). Reaction times to peripheral stimuli were significantly longer among patients with glaucoma compared with controls during mobile telephone use (median [interquartile range], 1.86 [1.42-2.29] seconds vs 1.14 [0.98-1.59] seconds; P = .02). Compared with driving performance while not using a mobile telephone, the mean (SD) increase of 0.85 (0.60) second in reaction time while conversing on the mobile telephone among patients with glaucoma was significantly greater than the mean (SD) increase of 0.68 (0.83) second for controls (P = .03).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This study's findings indicate that patients with glaucoma use mobile telephones while driving as frequently as healthy participants. However, the findings also suggest that patients with glaucoma may experience a greater decline than healthy participants in their ability to detect peripheral events while driving when also talking on a mobile telephone. Patients with glaucoma should be informed that they may have a higher driving risk that may be worsened by distractions, such as mobile telephone use.

Mobile phone involvement, beliefs, and texting while driving in Ukraine

There is extensive evidence that using a mobile phone whilst driving is one of the biggest contributors to driver distraction, which in turn increases the risk of motor vehicle collisions. Whilst most of the developed countries have been trying to deter this behaviour through legislation, enforcement and educational campaigns, in Ukraine, where the road fatality rate is the highest in Europe, this issue has only recently become publicised. The present study examined psychological factors that are associated with hand-held mobile phone use while driving among a sample of Ukrainian drivers, in particular writing or reading a text message while driving. This included drivers' behavioural, normative, and control beliefs relating to mobile phone use while driving, as well as the degree to which using a mobile phone is integral to one's everyday life (measured using the Mobile Phone Involvement Questionnaire; MPIQ). Almost one quarter to one third of the sample reported using their phone on a daily basis to write (22.2%) or read (38.2%) text messages while driving. A binary logistic regression showed that gender, higher MPIQ scores, perceived approval from family members, lower perceived likelihood of receiving traffic fines and less demanding traffic conditions were all significantly associated with mobile phone use while driving. These results suggest that dependence upon a mobile phone in everyday life may be an important factor to consider when developing interventions to reduce hand-held mobile phone use while driving.

Low Self-Control, Social Learning, and Texting while Driving

Despite the known implications of texting while driving for reducing driver alertness and increasing traffic accidents, investigating the potential causes of the behavior is something that criminologists have only recently started to investigate. The current study builds on this small body of research by assessing whether low self-control is associated with the frequency of texting while driving and, further, whether this association is moderated by perceptions of the texting habits of other drivers and best friends. Results based on data collected from a sample of 469 young adults indicate that low self-control is positively associated with the frequency of texting while driving. In addition, this association is amplified by an individual's perceptions of the proportion of other drivers who engage in texting while driving, but not by the texting and driving habits of best friends.

Y TXT N DRIVE? Predictors of texting while driving among a sample of Ontario youth and young adults

BACKGROUND

Distracted driving is of particular concern among young drivers. According to the 2012 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) survey, the greatest proportion of distraction prone drivers is within the 16-19 and 20-24 age groups. One relatively new distraction is texting while driving behaviour (TWD). TWD increases the amount of time drivers spend looking away from the road, slows reaction times and increases the risk of collisions by two-fold. To deter this behaviour many distracted driving campaigns focus on highlighting the risks and dangers of distracted driving; however, evidence suggests that youth and young adults continue to engage in TWD despite awareness of the related risks. Previous studies have examined constructs from the theory of planned behaviour as predictors of TWD (e.g., attitudes, intentions). Understanding the full range of factors that may influence this behaviour can inform the development of evidence-based public awareness campaigns and related interventions.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this paper was to examine predictors of TWD behaviour among youth and young adults. We examined constructs from the theory of planned behaviour in addition to the role played by perceived TWD driving skills, experience with collisions due to TWD, descriptive norms (i.e., an individual's beliefs about a behaviour that are gained as a result of observing the actions of others) and risk perceptions.

METHODS

An online survey was administered to 2001 Ontario youth and young adults examining potential predictors of TWD behaviour. Regression models were used to examine which key variables were associated with TWD (both reading and sending behaviour) among participants.

RESULTS

Overall, regression models had good predictability for reading and sending behaviours. Perceived TWD driving skills and 'almost getting in a collision due to TWD' were positively associated with TWD behaviour in the past week (both reading and sending behaviours). Descriptive norms were positively associated with sending text messages while driving in the past week, but were not significant for reading. In contrast, risk perceptions were positively associated with reading text messages in the past week but not sending.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results from this study highlight constructs that can be used to design interventions to deter young drivers from engaging in TWD. Interventions targeting perceived TWD driving skills and descriptive norms have the potential to be more effective than interventions emphasizing risk perceptions. Future studies are needed to better understand the relationships between these predictors and TWD behaviour among this population.

Correlations between mobile phone use and other risky behaviours while riding a motorcycle

Motorcyclist safety is a major concern in many developing countries. Understanding motorcycle riders' risky behaviours, particularly among the younger population, is essential to developing effective interventions. This paper explores the correlations between mobile phone use while riding and other risky riding behaviours as well as the relationships between perceived risks and risky riding behaviours, using an online survey of university students in Vietnam. Results show that calling while riding a motorcycle had the highest prevalence (74%) while reckless overtaking had the lowest prevalence (33.2%). Survey participants who indicated that they had the behaviours of reckless overtaking or riding on sidewalks were around twice as likely to call, text, or search for information while riding. In addition, those who admitted that they rode a motorcycle while under the influence of alcohol were nearly twice as likely to call or text while riding. The results also show that perceived crash risks reduced the likelihood of risky riding behaviours, including calling, texting, searching for information, speeding, running red lights, riding on the wrong side of a road, and riding on sidewalks. A more coordinated approach to enforcement is needed to help reduce the prevalence of multiple risk taking behaviours among motorcyclists.

Examination of associations between risky driving behaviors and hazardous drinking among a sample of college students

OBJECTIVE

Hazardous drinking is associated with other risky behaviors and negative health-related outcomes. This study examined covariation between hazardous drinking scores and the following risky driving behaviors: Falling asleep while driving, texting (receiving and sending) while driving, and driving after consuming alcohol.

METHODS

The participants in this study were a sample of undergraduate students (N = 1,298) who were enrolled in an introductory health course at a large Southeastern university in spring 2016 and completed an online health survey that assessed hazardous drinking, falling asleep while driving, texting while driving, and driving after consuming alcohol. We conducted a series of 2-step regression analyses to examine covariation between hazardous drinking scores (using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test-Consumption [AUDIT-C]) and the risky driving behaviors of interest.

RESULTS

We found that the majority of participants did not drink and drive (91.8%), nor did they fall asleep while driving (80.4%); however, the majority did read a text while driving (81.7%) and sent a text while driving (75.3%). In the full multivariable model, hazardous drinking score was positively associated with drinking and driving (step 2 odds ratio [OR] = 1.28, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18, 1.38) and sending a text message while driving (step 2 b = 0.19, P = .01). Hazardous drinking score was also positively associated with reading a text while driving (step 1 b = 0.14, P < .001) and falling asleep while driving (step 1 b = 0.02, P = .02) in the model only controlling for demographic characteristics. The analyses also indicated covariability between the following risky driving behaviors: (1) drinking and driving/reading a text message while driving, (2) drinking and driving/falling asleep and driving, (3) reading a text while driving/sending a text while driving, and (4) sending a text while driving/sleeping and driving.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study indicate a need for interventions discouraging both hazardous drinking and risky driving behaviors in college student populations; recommendations to reduce risky driving and hazardous drinking are discussed.

Cell Phone Use While Driving: Prospective Association with Emerging Adult Use

Secondary task engagement such as cell phone use while driving is a common behavior among adolescents and emerging adults. Texting and other distracting cell phone use in this population contributes to the high rate of fatal car crashes. Peer engagement in similar risky driving behaviors, such as texting, could socially influence driver phone use behavior. The present study investigates the prospective association between peer and emerging adult texting while driving the first year after high school. Surveys were conducted with a national sample of emerging adults and their nominated peers. Binomial logistic regression analyses, adjusting for gender, race/ethnicity, parental education, and family affluence, showed that participants (n=212) with peers (n=675) who reported frequently texting while driving, were significantly more likely to text while driving the following year (odds ratio, 3.01; 95% CI, 1.19-7.59; P=0.05). The findings are consistent with the idea that peer texting behavior influences the prevalence of texting while driving among emerging adults.

Calling, texting, and searching for information while riding a motorcycle: A study of university students in Vietnam

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of calling, texting, and searching for information while riding a motorcycle among university students and the influences of sociodemographic characteristics, social norms, and risk perceptions on these behaviors.

METHODS

Students at 2 university campuses in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the 2 largest cities in Vietnam, were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey. Data collection was conducted during March and May 2016.

RESULTS

There were 741 respondents, of whom nearly 90% of students (665) were motorcycle riders. Overall prevalence of mobile phone use while riding is 80.9% (95% confidence interval [CI], 77.9-83.9%) with calling having a higher level of prevalence than texting or searching for information while riding: 74% (95% CI, 70.7-77.3%) vs. 51.7% (95% CI, 47.9-55.5%) and 49.9% (95% CI, 46.1-53.7%), respectively. Random parameter ordered probit modeling results indicate that mobile phone use while riding is associated with gender, motorcycle license duration, perceived crash risk, perceived risk of mobile phone snatching, and perceptions of friends' mobile phone use while riding.

CONCLUSIONS

Mobile phone use while riding a motorcycle is highly prevalent among university students. Educational programs should focus on the crash and economic risk of all types of mobile phone use while riding, including calling, texting, and searching for information. In addition, they should consider targeting the influence of social norms and peers on mobile phone use while riding.

Attitudes and behaviors related to distracted driving in college students: a need for interventions in adolescence

Objective One of the biggest contributors to distracted driving among young people in the United States is technology. The objective of this study was to describe distracted driving behaviors among college students, with a specific focus on attitudes towards and use of social media. Methods With written permission, a survey was adapted from the Distracted Driving Public Opinion Poll distributed by the National Safety Council. The survey comprised 43 questions assessing attitudes and behaviors. A total of 411 students enrolled in a personal health course were invited to complete the survey. In total 324 surveys were completed, resulting in a response rate of 79%. Results Among students with a driver's license, 95.2% reported engaging in distracted driving behaviors. The use of social media while driving was common, with 30.7% reporting that they glance at, read, or post to social media while driving, most commonly on Snapchat or Instagram. It was common for students to make or answer phone calls (72.0%), review or send text messages (54.6%), or glance at or read automatic notifications (43.3%). Almost all students (91.5%) reported that they believed a hands-free solution is safer than holding the phone while driving, but only 67.9% reported that they usually used a hands-free device. Students in a health major and students who drive in urban areas were more likely to engage in distracted driving behaviors. Conclusions These findings suggest a need for interventions, particularly those which target adolescents in an attempt to deter these behaviors as they transition into adulthood.

Who's calling? Social networks and mobile phone use among motorcyclists

Mobile phone use while riding a motorcycle poses a key safety risk, particularly among younger people who have been found to be more susceptible to distracted driving. While previous research has examined the influence of social networks on mobile phone use while driving a car, no research has explored this association in the context of motorcycle use. Using a survey of university students in Vietnam, this research explores the association between social networks and mobile phone use among motorcyclists and the links this has to reported crashes/falls. Results show that the majority of students are most likely to use a mobile phone to communicate with a friend while riding, either through talking (56.5%) or text messaging (62.0%). However, respondents who frequently talk to a girlfriend/boyfriend or spouse while riding were more likely to experience a crash/fall than those who frequently talk with others while riding (e.g. parent, brother/sister). In addition, those who frequently text message a friend while riding were more likely to experience a crash/fall than those who frequently text message others while riding. The results highlight a clear association between social networks and mobile phone use while riding a motorcycle. Developing a culture of societal norms, where mobile phone use while riding a motorcycle is considered socially unacceptable, will help to reduce the prevalence and ultimate crash risk associated with mobile phone use while riding.

How do significant others influence our driving? A descriptive study of ego-alter dyads in a college population

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this investigation was to describe the mutual influences between drivers and their significant others in a sample of college students, using a social network perspective.

METHODS

A web-based survey was made of 65 dyads of drivers and their significant others, in order to examine areas of mutual influence concerning driving. Measures were taken of their frequency of risky driving, including how often they drive, talk on the cell phone, or text with each other while driving. They were also asked whether they have influenced or been influenced by each other to drive safer or in a more risky manner.

RESULTS

The dyads were very similar in how frequently they drive as well as talk to each other on the phone while driving. However, they were unlikely to feel that their driving was influenced by each other, with only 17% of the drivers and 19% of the significant others saying that they have been overtly influenced by (or have influenced) each other's driving behavior often or most of the time. Yet, most (67.7% and 72.1%) said they have ever encouraged or been encouraged by each other to drive more safely, mainly by being told to reduce their speed. In both sets of drivers in these dyads, talking to and texting their significant other while driving was related to risky driving.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that a similarity exits in the driving patterns of young drivers and their significant others, especially concerning talking to each other on the phone while driving. The largest degree of overt social influence appears to center around avoidance of behaviors perceived to be associated with getting a traffic citation. Implications for safety campaign development and future research are presented.

Preventing distracted driving among college students: Addressing smartphone use

Based on the National Highway Traffic Safety Association's (NHTSA) Report, fatalities due to distracted driving are on the rise and the highest proportion of fatalities by age group is the 20-29 year old category. To date little has been done to educate college students about the dangers of distracted driving and engage these students in promoting a safe driving culture. Intervening among college students has the potential for making real-time behavior change, can foster a lifetime of safe driving habits among these students, and can help contribute to a culture of safe driving that can be created and sustained through positive messages from peers. The goals of this study were to develop, implement and evaluate a distracted driving presentation for college students to change knowledge, attitude and behavior on distracted driving. A 30-min, multi-media presentation on distracted driving was presented to 19 colleges and universities, totaling 444 college students (mean age 23.7±7.0 years of age, 61% females, 39% males). Students completed three surveys: prior to the workshop (interview 1), immediately after the workshop (interview 2), and 3 months following the workshop (interview 3). We assessed changes between interview 1 and interview 2 and found 15 of the 15 attitude-knowledge based questions significantly improved after the course. In addition, we assessed changes from interviews 1 and 3, and found 11 of the 15 attitude-knowledge based questions maintained their significance. Responses to behavior related questions at three months were also compared to baseline, and significant improvements were found for 12 of the 14 questions. While this study was successful in improving the short-term attitude-knowledge and behaviors on distracted driving, work is needed to sustain (and evaluate) long-term effects.

The association between handheld phone bans and the prevalence of handheld phone conversations among young drivers in the United States

PURPOSE

Fourteen US states and the District of Columbia have banned handheld phone use for all drivers. We examined whether such legislation was associated with reduced handheld phone conversations among drivers aged younger than 25 years.

METHODS

Data from the 2008 to 2013 National Occupant Protection Use Survey were merged with states' legislation. The outcome was roadside-observed handheld phone conversation at stop signs or lights. Logistic regression was used.

RESULTS

A total of 32,784 young drivers were observed. Relative to drivers who were observed in states without a universal handheld phone ban, the adjusted odds ratio of phone conversation was 0.42 (95% confidence interval, 0.33-0.53) for drivers who were observed in states with bans. The relative reduction in phone conversation was 46% (23%, 61%) for laws that were effective less than 1 year, 55% (32%, 70%) for 1-2 years, 63% (51%, 72%) for 2 years or more, relative to no laws.

CONCLUSIONS

Universal handheld phone bans may be effective at reducing handheld phone use among young drivers.

Key beliefs influencing young drivers' engagement with social interactive technology on their smartphones: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVE

The main aim of this study was to identify young drivers' underlying beliefs (i.e., behavioral, normative, and control) regarding initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding to social interactive technology (i.e., functions on a Smartphone that allow the user to communicate with other people).

METHOD

This qualitative study was a beliefs elicitation study in accordance with the theory of planned behavior and sought to elicit young drivers' behavioral (i.e., advantages, disadvantages), normative (i.e., who approves, who disapproves), and control beliefs (i.e., barriers, facilitators) that underpin social interactive technology use while driving. Young drivers (N = 26) aged 17 to 25 years took part in an interview or focus group discussion.

RESULTS

Though differences emerged between the 3 behaviors of initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding for each of the behavioral, normative, and control belief categories, the strongest distinction was within the behavioral beliefs category (e.g., communicating with the person that they were on the way to meet was an advantage of initiating; being able to determine whether to respond was an advantage of monitoring/reading; and communicating with important people was an advantage of responding). Normative beliefs were similar for initiating and responding behaviors (e.g., friends and peers more likely to approve than other groups) and differences emerged for monitoring/reading (e.g., parents were more likely to approve of this behavior than initiating and responding). For control beliefs, there were differences between the beliefs regarding facilitators of these behaviors (e.g., familiar roads and conditions facilitated initiating; having audible notifications of an incoming communication facilitated monitoring/reading; and receiving a communication of immediate importance facilitated responding); however, the control beliefs that presented barriers were consistent across the 3 behaviors (e.g., difficult traffic/road conditions).

CONCLUSION

The current study provides an important addition to the extant literature and supports emerging research that suggests that initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding may indeed be distinct behaviors with different underlying motivations.

Texting at the light and other forms of device distraction behind the wheel

BACKGROUND

Cell phones are a well-known source of distraction for drivers, and owing to the proliferation of text messaging services, web browsers and interactive apps, modern devices provide ever-increasing temptation for drivers to take their eyes off the road. Although it is probably obvious that drivers' manual engagement of a device while their vehicles are in motion is potentially dangerous, it may not be clear that such engagement when the vehicle is at rest (an activity broadly labeled "texting at the light") can also impose risks. For one thing, a distracted driver at rest may fail to respond quickly to sudden changes in road conditions, such as an ambulance passing through. In addition, texting at the light may decrease so-called "situational awareness" and lead to driving errors even after the device is put down. To our knowledge, the direct comparison of the rate of device usage by drivers at rest with the rate of device usage by drivers in motion has not been reported.

METHODS

We collected information on 2000 passenger vehicles by roadside observation. For the first group of 1000 passenger vehicles stopped at a traffic light, device usage ("texting", "talking", "none"), gender of the driver, vehicle type, seatbelt usage and presence of front seat passengers were recorded. For a second set of 1000 vehicles in motion, device usage alone was noted. Statistical significance for differences in rates was assessed with the chi-square test.

RESULTS

We found that 3 % of drivers in motion were texting and 5 % were talking. Among the stopped drivers, 14.5 % were texting and 6.3 % were talking. In the stopped-vehicle set, gender and vehicle type were not associated with significant differences in device usage, but having a front seat passenger and using seatbelts were.

CONCLUSIONS

Device usage is markedly higher among drivers temporarily at rest compared with those in motion, and the presence of a front seat passenger, who may help alleviate boredom or reprimand bad behavior, is associated with lower device usage rates among vehicles stopped at a light. These observations may help identify suitable steps to decrease distracted driving and thereby minimize traffic trauma.

Strategic Adaptation to Task Characteristics, Incentives, and Individual Differences in Dual-Tasking

We investigate how good people are at multitasking by comparing behavior to a prediction of the optimal strategy for dividing attention between two concurrent tasks. In our experiment, 24 participants had to interleave entering digits on a keyboard with controlling a randomly moving cursor with a joystick. The difficulty of the tracking task was systematically varied as a within-subjects factor. Participants were also exposed to different explicit reward functions that varied the relative importance of the tracking task relative to the typing task (between-subjects). Results demonstrate that these changes in task characteristics and monetary incentives, together with individual differences in typing ability, influenced how participants choose to interleave tasks. This change in strategy then affected their performance on each task. A computational cognitive model was used to predict performance for a wide set of alternative strategies for how participants might have possibly interleaved tasks. This allowed for predictions of optimal performance to be derived, given the constraints placed on performance by the task and cognition. A comparison of human behavior with the predicted optimal strategy shows that participants behaved near optimally. Our findings have implications for the design and evaluation of technology for multitasking situations, as consideration should be given to the characteristics of the task, but also to how different users might use technology depending on their individual characteristics and their priorities.

State all-driver distracted driving laws and high school students' texting while driving behavior

OBJECTIVE

Texting while driving is highly prevalent among adolescents and young adults in the United States. Texting while driving can significantly increase the risk of road crashes and is associated with other risky driving behaviors. Most states have enacted distracted driving laws to prohibit texting while driving. This study examines effects of different all-driver distracted driving laws on texting while driving among high school students.

METHODS

High school student data were extracted from the 2013 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Distracted driving law information was collected from the National Conference of State Legislatures. The final sample included 6,168 high school students above the restricted driving age in their states and with access to a vehicle. Logistic regression was applied to estimate odds ratios of laws on texting while driving.

RESULTS

All-driver text messaging bans with primary enforcement were associated with a significant reduction in odds of texting while driving among high school students (odds ratio = 0.703; 95% confidence interval, 0.513-0.964), whereas all-driver phone use bans with primary enforcement did not have a significant association with texting while driving (odds ratio = 0.846; 95% confidence interval, 0.501-1.429).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that all-driver distracted driving laws that specifically target texting while driving as opposed to all types of phone use are effective in reducing the behavior among high school students.

A qualitative study of college students' perceptions of risky driving and social influences

OBJECTIVES

Young adults and teens are documented as the riskiest drivers on the road, and newer issues such as texting and driving are a growing concern. This study sought to determine the risk perceptions of young adults regarding various driving behaviors, their past experiences, how their social circles are structured, and how this might affect their driving.

METHODS

This study conducted qualitative research with 25 college undergraduate students to determine their peer and social influences regarding distracted driving. Data were analyzed and related to the health belief model and past research on social influence.

RESULTS

Though most participants felt that their behaviors were set after learning to drive, they were, in fact, quite susceptible to the influence of those in their social circles (e.g., fear of judgment and accountability) and, more broadly, to social norms. Texting and driving was the largest and most topical distracted driving issue and was also identified as very difficult to stop due to perceived barriers and the idea that intervening is rude. Participants identified low perceived susceptibility and severity (perceived threat) for a number of risky driving behaviors, including texting and driving.

CONCLUSIONS

Training is needed to encourage people to intervene and speak up regarding behaviors other than drinking and driving, and cues to action and campaigns should target intervention to increase self-efficacy, as well as norms, susceptibility, and common rationalizations for risky behavior.