The codrug approach for facilitating drug delivery and bioactivity

In Situ Mass Spectrometry Imaging to Elucidate the Effects of an Adenosine A2A Receptor Agonist and Alprazolam on Sleep Regulation

Alprazolam (Alp), a commonly used sleep medication in clinical practice, has several potential limitations, including a narrow therapeutic dosage range and a delayed sleep onset. CGS21680 (CGS), a selective agonist of the adenosine A2A receptor, exhibits neuroinhibitory properties. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of CGS on the sleep properties of Alp. The sleep-inducing effects of Alp were assessed through the righting reflex, while the sedative effects of CGS were evaluated by spontaneous activity detection. The synergistic effect of CGS on Alp was evaluated by using electroencephalography and electromyography. The results indicate that we optimized and selected ED5 dose of Alp and ED50 dose of CGS for coadministration. CGS reduced the sleep latency induced by Alp and extended the sleep duration. The distribution of Alp in the brain was assessed through mass spectrometry imaging (MSI). The blood-brain barrier (BBB) model was established to evaluate the impact of CGS on the transmittance of Alp. The results indicated that CGS influenced the distribution of Alp across various brain regions and increased Alp's transmittance across the BBB. The metabolic pathways of GABA, glutamate, and glutamine were assessed through MSI and enzyme activity verification. The coadministration of Alp and CGS resulted in the regulation of GABA, glutamate, and glutamine during the sleep latency and sleep maintenance periods, respectively. In conclusion, the potentiating effect of CGS on the sleep-inducing properties of Alp is attributed to its ability to modulate the distribution of Alp in the brain by enhancing BBB permeability and its influence on Alp-induced neurotransmitter release.

Synthesis of Enantiostructured Triacylglycerols Possessing a Saturated Fatty Acid, a Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid and an Active Drug Intended as Novel Prodrugs

This report describes the asymmetric synthesis of a focused library of enantiopure structured triacylglycerols (TAGs) comprised of a single saturated fatty acid (C6, C8, C10, C12, C14 or C16), a pure bioactive n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (EPA or DHA) and a potent drug (ibuprofen or naproxen) intended as a novel type of prodrug. One of the terminal sn-1 or sn-3 positions of the glycerol backbone is occupied with a saturated fatty, the remaining one with a PUFA, and the drug entity is present in the sn-2 position. This was accomplished by a six-step chemoenzymatic approach starting from enantiopure (R)- and (S)-solketals. The highly regioselective immobilized Candida antarctica lipase (CAL-B) played a crucial role in the regiocontrol of the synthesis. All combinations, a total of 48 such prodrug TAGs, were prepared, isolated and fully characterized, along with 60 acylglycerol intermediates, obtained in very high to excellent yields.

β-d-Ribofuranose as a Core with a Phosphodiester Moiety as the Enzyme Recognition Site for Codrug Development

An ideal codrug design should be able to control drug release, offer selectivity during drug delivery, and break down into non-toxic fragments after biodegradation. Our design incorporates d-ribofuranose as the core, with carbamate and carbonate groups as linking joints, a phosphodiester moiety as an enzyme recognition site, and lenalidomide and paclitaxel as the constituent drugs. The codrug synthesis involves seven steps with a 33% overall yield. The target codrug increases its water solubility 685 times versus paclitaxel.

The landscape of small-molecule prodrugs

Prodrugs are derivatives with superior properties compared with the parent active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), which undergo biotransformation after administration to generate the API in situ. Although sharing this general characteristic, prodrugs encompass a wide range of different chemical structures, therapeutic indications and properties. Here we provide the first holistic analysis of the current landscape of approved prodrugs using cheminformatics and data science approaches to reveal trends in prodrug development. We highlight rationales that underlie prodrug design, their indications, mechanisms of API release, the chemistry of promoieties added to APIs to form prodrugs and the market impact of prodrugs. On the basis of this analysis, we discuss strengths and limitations of current prodrug approaches and suggest areas for future development.

Design, synthesis, and evaluation of the novel ozagrel-paeonol codrug with antiplatelet aggregation activities as a potent anti-stroke therapeutic agent

Introduction: Ischemic stroke is the second most common chronic disease worldwide and is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Thromboembolism and platelet aggregation are the most characteristic features of stroke. Other than aspirin, no standard, accepted, or effective treatment for acute ischemic stroke has been established. Consequently, it is essential to identify novel therapeutic compounds for this condition. Methods: In this study, novel ozagrel/paeonol-containing codrugs were synthesized and characterized using 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and mass spectroscopy. Their antiplatelet aggregation activity was evaluated, with compound PNC3 found to exhibit the best effect. Subsequently, studies were conducted to assess its neuroprotective effect, pharmacokinetic properties and model its binding mode to P2Y12 and TXA2, two proteins critical for platelet aggregation. Results: The results indicated that PNC3 has good bioavailability and exerts protective effects against oxygen-glucose deprivation injury in PC12 cells. Molecular docking analysis further demonstrated that the compound interacts with residues located in the active binding sites of the target proteins. Conclusion: The codrugs synthesized in this study display promising pharmacological activities and have the potential for development as an oral formulation.

Prodrugs as empowering tools in drug discovery and development: recent strategic applications of drug delivery solutions to mitigate challenges associated with lead compounds and drug candidates

The delivery of a drug to a specific organ or tissue at an efficacious concentration is the pharmacokinetic (PK) hallmark of promoting effective pharmacological action at a target site with an acceptable safety profile. Sub-optimal pharmaceutical or ADME profiles of drug candidates, which can often be a function of inherently poor physicochemical properties, pose significant challenges to drug discovery and development teams and may contribute to high compound attrition rates. Medicinal chemists have exploited prodrugs as an informed strategy to productively enhance the profiles of new chemical entities by optimizing the physicochemical, biopharmaceutical, and pharmacokinetic properties as well as selectively delivering a molecule to the site of action as a means of addressing a range of limitations. While discovery scientists have traditionally employed prodrugs to improve solubility and membrane permeability, the growing sophistication of prodrug technologies has enabled a significant expansion of their scope and applications as an empowering tool to mitigate a broad range of drug delivery challenges. Prodrugs have emerged as successful solutions to resolve non-linear exposure, inadequate exposure to support toxicological studies, pH-dependent absorption, high pill burden, formulation challenges, lack of feasibility of developing solid and liquid dosage forms, first-pass metabolism, high dosing frequency translating to reduced patient compliance and poor site-specific drug delivery. During the period 2012-2022, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 50 prodrugs, which amounts to 13% of approved small molecule drugs, reflecting both the importance and success of implementing prodrug approaches in the pursuit of developing safe and effective drugs to address unmet medical needs.

Facilitated Transport across Glycocalyceal Barriers in the Chick Chorioallantoic Membrane

Targeted drug delivery to visceral organs offers the possibility of not only limiting the required dose, but also minimizing drug toxicity; however, there is no reliable method for delivering drugs to the surface of visceral organs. Here, we used six color tracers and the chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model to investigate the use of the heteropolysaccharide pectin to facilitate tracer diffusion across the glycocalyceal charge barrier. The color tracers included brilliant blue, Congo red, crystal violet, indocyanine green, methylene blue, and methyl green. The direct application of the tracers to the CAM surface or embedding tracers into linear-chain nanocellulose fiber films resulted in no significant diffusion into the CAM. In contrast, when the tracers were actively loaded into branched-chain pectin films, there was significant detectable diffusion of the tracers into the CAM. The facilitated diffusion was observed in the three cationic tracers but was limited in the three anionic tracers. Diffusion appeared to be dependent on ionic charge, but independent of tracer size or molecular mass. We conclude that dye-loaded pectin films facilitated the diffusion of color tracers across the glycocalyceal charge barrier and may provide a therapeutic path for drug delivery to the surface of visceral organs.

Isopropyl Amino Acid Esters Ionic Liquids as Vehicles for Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in Potential Topical Drug Delivery Systems with Antimicrobial Activity

New derivatives of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were synthesized via conjugation with L-amino acid isopropyl esters. The characteristics of the physicochemical properties of the obtained pharmaceutically active ionic liquids were determined. It has been shown how the incorporation of various L-amino acid esters as an ion pair affects the properties of the parent drug. Moreover, the antimicrobial activity of the obtained compounds was evaluated. The proposed structural modifications of commonly used drugs indicate great potential for use in topical and transdermal preparations.

Recent advances in combretastatin A-4 codrugs for cancer therapy

CA4 is a potent microtubule polymerization inhibitor and vascular disrupting agent. However, the in vivo efficiency of CA4 is limited owing to its poor pharmacokinetics resulting from its high lipophilicity and low water solubility. To improve the water solubility, CA4 phosphate (CA4P) has been developed and shows potent antivascular and antitumor effects. CA4P had been evaluated as a vascular disrupting agent in previousc linical trials. However, it had been discontinued due to the lack of a meaningful improvement in progression-free survival and unfavorable partial response data. Codrug is a drug design approach to chemically bind two or more drugs to improve therapeutic efficiency or decrease adverse effects. This review describes the progress made over the last twenty years in developing CA4-based codrugs to improve the therapeutic profile and achieve targeted delivery to cancer tissues. It also discusses the existing problems and the developmental prospects of CA4 codrugs.

Synthesis of Ester-Substituted Indolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines via Photocatalyzed Alkoxycarbonylation/Cyclization Reactions

A direct alkoxycarbonylation/cyclization reaction is accomplished under visible light-induced photoredox catalysis. With this approach, a variety of ester-substituted indolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines are prepared in good to excellent yields. It is worth noting that this method not only can afford the synthesis of indolo[2,1-a]isoquinolines but also can provide an alternative route for generating complex target structures bearing carboxylic esters.

A Stability-Indicating Ultra Performance Liquid Chromato-Graphic (UPLC) Method for the Determination of a Mycophenolic Acid-Curcumin Conjugate and Its Applications to Chemical Kinetic Studies

A simple, precise, and accurate reversed-phase ultra-performance liquid chromatographic (UPLC) method was developed and validated for the determination of a mycophenolic acid-curcumin (MPA-CUR) conjugate in buffer solutions. Chromatographic separation was performed on a C18 column (2.1 × 50 mm id, 1.7 µm) with a gradient elution system of water and acetonitrile, each containing 0.1% formic acid, at a flow rate of 0.6 mL/min. The column temperature was controlled at 33 °C. The compounds were detected simultaneously at the maximum wavelengths of mycophenolic acid (MPA), 254 nm, and curcumin (CUR), or MPA-CUR, at 420 nm. The developed method was validated according to the ICH Q2(R1) guidelines. The linear calibration curves of the assay ranged from 0.10 to 25 μg/mL (r² ≥ 0.995, 1/x² weighting factor), with a limit of detection and a limit of quantitation of 0.04 and 0.10 μg/mL, respectively. The accuracy and precision of the developed method were 98.4-101.6%, with %CV < 2.53%. The main impurities from the specificity test were found to be MPA and CUR. Other validation parameters, including robustness and solution stability, were acceptable under the validation criteria. Forced degradation studies were conducted under hydrolytic (acidic and alkaline), oxidative, thermal, and photolytic stress conditions. MPA-CUR was well separated from MPA, CUR, and other unknown degradation products. The validated method was successfully applied in chemical kinetic studies of MPA-CUR in different buffer solutions.

A Novel Curcumin-Mycophenolic Acid Conjugate Inhibited Hyperproliferation of Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha-Induced Human Keratinocyte Cells

Curcumin (CUR) has been used as adjuvant therapy for therapeutic application in the treatment of psoriasis through several mechanisms of action. Due to the poor oral bioavailability of CUR, several approaches have been developed to overcome the limitations of CUR, including the prodrug strategy. In this study, CUR was esterified with mycophenolic acid (MPA) as a novel conjugate prodrug. The MPA-CUR conjugate was structurally elucidated using FT-IR, ¹H-NMR, ¹³C-NMR, and MS techniques. Bioavailable fractions (BFs) across Caco-2 cells of CUR, MPA, and MPA-CUR were collected for further biological activity evaluation representing an in vitro cellular transport model for oral administration. The antipsoriatic effect of the BFs was determined using antiproliferation and anti-inflammation assays against hyperproliferation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced human keratinocytes (HaCaT). The BF of MPA-CUR provided better antiproliferation than that of CUR (p < 0.001). The enhanced hyperproliferation suppression of the BF of MPA-CUR resulted from the reduction of several inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, and IL-1β. The molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory activity were mediated by an attenuated signaling cascade of MAPKs protein, i.e., p38, ERK, and JNK. Our results present evidence for the MPA-CUR conjugate as a promising therapeutic agent for treating psoriasis by antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory actions.

Dexamethasone and Fumaric Acid Ester Conjugate Synergistically Inhibits Inflammation and NF-κB in Macrophages

Macrophage-mediated inflammation drives autoimmune and chronic inflammatory diseases. Treatment with anti-inflammatory agents can be an effective strategy to reduce this inflammation; however, high concentrations of these agents can have immune-dampening and other serious side effects. Synergistic combination of anti-inflammatory agents can mitigate dosing by requiring less drug. Multiple anti-inflammatory agents were evaluated in combination for synergistic inhibition of macrophage inflammation. The most potent synergy was observed between dexamethasone (DXM) and fumaric acid esters (e.g., monomethyl fumarate (MMF)). Furthermore, this combination was found to synergistically inhibit inflammatory nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) transcription factor activity. The optimal ratio for synergy was determined to be 1:1, and DXM and MMF were conjugated by esterification at this molar ratio. The DXM-MMF conjugate displayed improved inhibition of inflammation over the unconjugated combination in both murine and human macrophages. In the treatment of human donor monocyte-derived macrophages, the combination of DXM and MMF significantly inhibited inflammatory gene expression downstream of NF-κB and overall performed better than either agent alone. Further, the DXM-MMF conjugate significantly inhibited expression of NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-associated genes. The potent anti-inflammatory activity of the DXM-MMF conjugate in human macrophages indicates that it may have benefits in the treatment of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases.

Recent advances in prodrug-based nanoparticle therapeutics

Extensive research into prodrug modification of active pharmaceutical ingredients and nanoparticle drug delivery systems has led to unprecedented levels of control over the pharmacological properties of drugs and resulted in the approval of many prodrug or nanoparticle-based therapies. In recent years, the combination of these two strategies into prodrug-based nanoparticle drug delivery systems (PNDDS) has been explored as a way to further advance nanomedicine and identify novel therapies for difficult-to-treat indications. Many of the PNDDS currently in the clinical development pipeline are expected to enter the market in the coming years, making the rapidly evolving field of PNDDS highly relevant to pharmaceutical scientists. This review paper is intended to introduce PNDDS to the novice reader while also updating those working in the field with a comprehensive summary of recent efforts. To that end, first, an overview of FDA-approved prodrugs is provided to familiarize the reader with their advantages over traditional small molecule drugs and to describe the chemistries that can be used to create them. Because this article is part of a themed issue on nanoparticles, only a brief introduction to nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems is provided summarizing their successful application and unfulfilled opportunities. Finally, the review's centerpiece is a detailed discussion of rationally designed PNDDS formulations in development that successfully leverage the strengths of prodrug and nanoparticle approaches to yield highly effective therapeutic options for the treatment of many diseases.

Design, synthesis and antihypertensive evaluation of novel codrugs with combined angiotensin type 1 receptor antagonism and neprilysin inhibition

The multifactorial etiology of hypertension has promoted the research of blood pressure-lowering agents with multitarget actions to achieve better clinical outcomes. We describe here the discovery of novel dual-acting antihypertensive codrugs combining pharmacophores with angiotensin type 1 (AT1) receptor antagonism and neprilysin (NEP) inhibition. Specifically, the codrugs combine the AT1 antagonists losartan or its carboxylic acid active metabolite (E-3174) with selected monocarboxylic acid NEP inhibitors through a cleavable linker. The resulting codrugs exhibited high rates of in vitro conversion into the active molecules upon incubation with human/rat liver S9 fractions and in vivo conversion after oral administration in rodents. Moreover, the acute effects of one of the designed codrugs (3b) was confirmed at the doses of 10, 30 and 60 mg/kg p.o. in the spontaneous hypertensive rat (SHR) model, showing better antihypertensive response over 24 hours than the administration of an equivalent fixed-dose combination of 15 mg/kg of losartan and 14 mg/kg of the same NEP inhibitor used in 3b. The results demonstrate that the codrug approach is a plausible strategy to develop a single molecular entity with combined AT1 and NEP activities, aiming at achieving improved pharmacokinetics, efficacy and dosage convenience, as well as reduced drug-drug interaction for hypertension patients. In addition, the developability of the codrug should be comparable to the one of marketed AT1 antagonists, most of them prodrugs, but bearing only the AT1 pharmacophore.

Interconvertible Hydrochlorothiazide–Caffeine Multicomponent Pharmaceutical Materials: A Solvent Issue

The design of new multicomponent pharmaceutical materials that involve different active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), e.g., drug-drug cocrystals, is a novel and interesting approach to address new therapeutic challenges. In this work, the hydrochlorothiazide-caffeine (HCT–CAF) codrug and its methanol solvate have been synthesized by mechanochemical methods and thoroughly characterized in the solid state by powder and single crystal X-ray diffraction, respectively, as well as differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analyses and infrared spectroscopy. In addition, solubility and stability studies have also been performed looking for improved physicochemical properties of the codrug. Interestingly, the two reported structures show great similarity, which allows conversion between them. The desolvated HCT–CAF cocrystal shows great stability at 24 h and an enhancement of solubility with respect to the reference HCT API. Furthermore, the contribution of intermolecular forces on the improved physicochemical properties was evaluated by computational methods showing strong and diverse H-bond and π–π stacking interactions.

Cortisone and cortisol break hydrogen-bonding rules to make a drug-prodrug solid solution

Multidrug products enable more effective therapies and simpler administration regimens, provided that a stable formulation is prepared, with the desired composition. In this view, solid solutions have the advantage of combining the stability of a single crystalline phase with the potential of stoichiometry variation of a mixture. Here a drug-prodrug solid solution of cortisone and cortisol (hydrocortisone) is described. Despite the structural differences of the two components, the new phase is obtained both from solution and by supercritical CO2 assisted spray drying. In particular, to enter the solid solution, hydrocortisone must violate Etter's rules for hydrogen bonding. As a result, its dissolution rate is almost doubled.

Uracil-Containing Heterodimers of a New Type: Synthesis and Study of Their Anti-Viral Properties

Widespread latent herpes viral infections within a population can lead to the development of co-infections in HIV-infected patients. These infections are not particularly dangerous for healthy individuals and often occur with minimal symptoms, but for those who are immunocompromised, these infections can accelerate the acute phase of HIV infection and AIDS. Thus, the idea of designing compounds that could combine activity against HIV and co-infections would seem promising. In that regard, eleven compounds were synthesized that represent conjugates of non-nucleoside HIV reverse transcriptase inhibitors and nucleoside inhibitors of the herpes family viruses with the hope that these novel heterodimers will result in dual activity against HIV and concomitant herpes virus infections.

Codrug Approach for the Potential Treatment of EML4-ALK Positive Lung Cancer

We report on the synergistic effect of PI3K inhibition with ALK inhibition for the possible treatment of EML4-ALK positive lung cancer. We have brought together ceritinib (ALK inhibitor) and pictilisib (PI3K inhibitor) into a single bivalent molecule (a codrug) with the aim of designing a molecule for slow release drug delivery that targets EML4-ALK positive lung cancer. We have joined the two drugs through a new, pH-sensitive linker where the resulting codrugs are hydrolytically stable at lower pH (pH 6.4) but rapidly cleaved at higher pH (pH 7.4). Compound (19), which was designed for optimal lung retention, demonstrated clean liberation of the drug payloads in vitro and represents a novel approach to targeted lung delivery.

Fractional Laser-Mediated siRNA Delivery for Mitigating Psoriasis-like Lesions via IL-6 Silencing

The poor permeability of topically applied macromolecules such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) has inhibited the translation to clinical application. In this study, the fractional CO₂ laser-assisted approach was developed to describe siRNA permeation enhancement mediated by the created microchannels for silencing the gene to treat psoriasiform lesions. In vitro permeation using Franz cell and in vivo interleukin (IL)-6 silencing using psoriasis-like plaque in mice were evaluated to verify the impact of the laser irradiation. Low-fluence laser exposure enabled a significant increase in skin transport of siRNA, peptide, and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The laser treatment resulted in the enhancement of siRNA flux by 33- and 14-fold as compared to the control in nude mouse and pig skin, respectively. The laser exposure also promoted siRNA penetration across psoriatic and photoaging skins with the deficient barrier, although the enhancement level was minor compared to that of intact skin. The 3D images of confocal microscopy revealed a diffusion of macromolecules into the laser-created microchannels; the radial and vertical distribution to the surrounding and deep tissues followed this. A single laser treatment and the following topical siRNA administration were able to reduce IL-6 expression by 64% in the psoriatic skin model. Laser assistance led to the marked improvement in the plaque and the reduction of specific cytokine expression, keratinocyte proliferation, and neutrophil infiltration. Our data support the use of the fractional laser for delivery of functional nucleic acid into the skin and the target cells.

A novel codrug made of the combination of ethionamide and its potentiating booster: synthesis, self-assembly into nanoparticles and antimycobacterial evaluation

Ethionamide (ETH) is one of the most widely used second-line chemotherapeutic drugs for the treatment of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis. The bioactivation and activity of ETH is dramatically potentiated by a family of molecules called "boosters" among which BDM43266 is one of the most potent. However, the co-administration of these active molecules is hampered by their low solubility in biological media and by the strong tendency of ETH to crystallize. A novel strategy that involves synthesizing a codrug able to self-associate into nanoparticles prone to be taken up by infected macrophages is proposed here. This codrug is designed by tethering N-hydroxymethyl derivatives of both ETH and its booster through a glutaric linker. This codrug self-assembles into nanoparticles of around 200 nm, stable upon extreme dilution without disaggregating as well as upon concentration. The nanoparticles of the codrug can be intranasally administered overcoming the unfavorable physico-chemical profiles of the parent drugs. Intrapulmonary delivery of the codrug nanoparticles to Mtb infected mice via the intranasal route at days 7, 9, 11, 14, 16 and 18 post-infection reduces the bacterial load in the lungs by a factor of 6.

Machine Learning Approach for Determining the Formation of β-Lactam Antibiotic Complexes with Cyclodextrins Using Multispectral Analysis

The problem of determining the formation of complexes of β-lactam antibiotics with cyclodextrins (CDs) and the interactions involved in this process were addressed by machine learning on multispectral images. Complexes of β-lactam antibiotics, including cefuroxime axetil, cefetamet pivoxil, and pivampicillin, as well as CDs, including αCD, βCD, γCD, hydroxypropyl-αCD, methyl-βCD, hydroxypropyl-βCD, and hydroxypropyl-γCD, were prepared in all combinations. Thermograms confirming the formation of cyclodextrin complexes were obtained using differential scanning calorimetry. Transmission Fourier-transform infrared (tFTIR) and complementary attenuated total reflectance FTIR (ATR) coupled with machine learning were techniques chosen as a nondestructive alternative. The machine learning algorithm was used to determine the formation of complexes in samples using solely their tFTIR and ATR spectra at the prediction stage. Parameterized method 7 (PM7) was used to support the analysis by molecular modeling of the complexes. The model developed through machine learning properly distinguished samples with formed complexes form noncomplexed samples with a cross-validation accuracy of 90.4%. Analysis of the contribution of spectral bands to the model indicated interactions of ester groups of β-lactam antibiotics with CDs, as well as some interactions of cephem ring in cefetamet pivoxil and penam moiety in pivampicillin. Molecular modeling with PM7 helped to explain experimental results and allowed to propose possible binding modes.

Topical drug therapeutics for neuropathic pain

INTRODUCTION

Neuropathic pain (NP) is a particularly severe and intractable chronic condition that is not well treated by commonly recommended systemic pharmacological therapies, partly due to dose-limiting side effects or adverse events. The use of topical therapeutics for NP is growing and benefits from the reduced potential for adverse effects, as well as the ability to directly target peripheral pathological processes.

AREAS COVERED

The current review defines and describes the limitations of various commonly prescribed systemic pharmacological therapies for NP. It also provides a justification for increased research aimed at developing topical therapeutics for NP, particularly localized and peripheral NP. The review discusses the various classes of topical treatments used for NP, including agents that: block sensory inputs; activate inhibitory systems; provide mechanism-based therapeutics; are used in mucosal tissues; and include combinations that produce multimodal therapeutic effects.

EXPERT OPINION

There are arguments that the current topical therapeutics for NP rely too heavily on the use of local anesthetics and capsaicinoids, and more research is certainly needed on topical therapies that are multimodal and/or are targeted at the peripheral sources of pathology. The potential for novel topical therapeutics may be enhanced by further research on topical co-drugs, drug-drug salts, co-crystals and hydrates, and ionic liquids.

Molecular Consortia-Various Structural and Synthetic Concepts for More Effective Therapeutics Synthesis

The design and discovery of novel drug candidates are the initial and most probably the crucial steps in the drug development process. One of the tasks of medicinal chemistry is to produce new molecules that have a desired biological effect. However, even today the search for new pharmaceuticals is a very complicated process that is hard to rationalize. Literature provides many scientific reports on future prospects of design of potentially useful drugs. Many trends have been proposed for the design of new drugs containing different structures (dimers, heterodimers, heteromers, adducts, associates, complexes, biooligomers, dendrimers, dual-, bivalent-, multifunction drugs and codrugs, identical or non-identical twin drugs, mixed or combo drugs, supramolecular particles and various nanoindividuals. Recently much attention has been paid to different strategies of molecular hybridization. In this paper, various molecular combinations were described e.g., drug–drug or drug-non-drug combinations which are expressed in a schematic multi-factor form called a molecular matrix, consisting of four factors: association mode, connection method, and the number of elements and linkers. One of the most popular trends is to create small–small molecule combinations such as different hybrids, codrugs, drug–drug conjugates (DDCs) and small-large molecule combinations such as antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs), polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs) or different prodrugs and macromolecular therapeutics. A review of the structural possibilities of active framework combinations indicates that a wide range of potentially effective novel-type compounds can be formed. What is particularly important is that new therapeutics can be obtained in fast, efficient, and selective methods using current trends in chemical synthesis and the design of drugs such as the “Lego” concept or rational green approach.

Colchicine prodrugs and codrugs: Chemistry and bioactivities

Antimitotic colchicine possesses low therapeutic index due to high toxicity effects in non-target cell. However, diverse colchicine analogs have been derivatized as intentions for toxicity reduction and structure-activity relationship (SAR) studying. Hybrid system of colchicine structure with nontoxic biofunctional compounds modified further affords a new entity in chemical structure with enhanced activity and selectivity. Moreover, nanocarrier formulation strategies have been used for colchicine delivery. This review paper focuses on colchicine nanoformulation, chemical synthesis of colchicine prodrugs and codrugs with different linkers, highlights linker chemical nature and biological activity of synthesized compounds. Additionally, classification of colchicine prodrugs based on type of conjugates is discussed, as biopolymers prodrugs, fluorescent prodrug, metal complexes prodrug, metal-labile prodrug and bioconjugate prodrug. Finally, we briefly summarized the biological importance of colchicine nanoformulation, colchicine prodrugs and codrugs.

The influence of excipients on physical and pharmaceutical properties of oral lyophilisates containing a pregabalin-acetaminophen combination

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of the study was to investigate and characterize the oral lyophilisates containing the pregabalin-acetaminophen drug combination and as xcipients mannitol with microcrystalline cellulose or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, in order to conclude upon drug-excipient interactions and their stability implications, impact of excipients on drug release and on the physicochemical and mechanical properties of the pharmaceutical formulations.

METHODS

The oral tablets were made by using a Christ freeze-dryer alpha 2-4-LSC lyophilizer, and evaluated for stability, drug-excipient compatibility and homogeneity of the prepared pharmaceutical formulations. The formulations were evaluated for in vivo absorption in rabbits by histopathological exams.

RESULTS

FTIR and thermogravimetric analyses, DLS technique, SEM and NIR-CI studies confirmed the compatibility between compounds. From the determined physical and biochemical parameters of the formulations it was established that they are stable, homogeneous, and meet the conditions for orally disintegrating tablets.

CONCLUSION

In the case of the investigated pharmaceutical formulations the study evidenced the assembling through physical bonds between the excipients and the 'codrug' complex, which do not affect the release of the bioactive compounds.