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Delaunay N, Combès A, Pichon V. Immunoaffinity Extraction and Alternative Approaches for the Analysis of Toxins in Environmental, Food or Biological Matrices. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120795. [PMID: 33322240 PMCID: PMC7764248 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of instrumentation in terms of separation and detection allowed a real improvement of the sensitivity and analysis time. However, the analysis of ultra-traces of toxins in complex samples requires often a step of purification and even preconcentration before their chromatographic analysis. Therefore, immunoaffinity sorbents based on specific antibodies thus providing a molecular recognition mechanism appear as powerful tools for the selective extraction of a target molecule and its structural analogs to obtain more reliable and sensitive quantitative analysis in environmental, food or biological matrices. This review focuses on immunosorbents that have proven their efficiency in selectively extracting various types of toxins of various sizes (from small mycotoxins to large proteins) and physicochemical properties. Immunosorbents are now commercially available, and their use has been validated for numerous applications. The wide variety of samples to be analyzed, as well as extraction conditions and their impact on extraction yields, is discussed. In addition, their potential for purification and thus suppression of matrix effects, responsible for quantification problems especially in mass spectrometry, is presented. Due to their similar properties, molecularly imprinted polymers and aptamer-based sorbents that appear to be an interesting alternative to antibodies are also briefly addressed by comparing their potential with that of immunosorbents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Delaunay
- Department of Analytical, Bioanalytical Sciences and Miniaturization (LSABM), CBI ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France; (N.D.); (A.C.)
| | - Audrey Combès
- Department of Analytical, Bioanalytical Sciences and Miniaturization (LSABM), CBI ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France; (N.D.); (A.C.)
| | - Valérie Pichon
- Department of Analytical, Bioanalytical Sciences and Miniaturization (LSABM), CBI ESPCI Paris, PSL University, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France; (N.D.); (A.C.)
- Department of Chemistry, Sorbonne University, 75005 Paris, France
- Correspondence:
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Zearalenone and Metabolites in Livers of Turkey Poults and Broiler Chickens Fed with Diets Containing Fusariotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12080525. [PMID: 32824220 PMCID: PMC7472091 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12080525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) and metabolites were measured in livers of turkeys and broilers fed a control diet free of mycotoxins, a diet that contained 0.5 mg/kg ZEN (ZEN diet), and a diet that contained 0.5, 5, and 20 mg/kg of ZEN, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol, respectively (ZENDONFB diet). The feed was individually distributed to male Grade Maker turkeys from the 55th to the 70th day of age and to male Ross chickens from the 1st to the 35th day of age, without any signs of toxicity. Together, the free and conjugated forms of ZEN, α- and β-zearalenols (ZOLs), zearalanone (ZAN), and α- and β-zearalanols (ZALs) were measured by UHPLC-MS/MS with [13C18]-ZEN as an internal standard and immunoaffinity clean-up of samples. ZAN and ZALs were not detected. ZEN and ZOLs were mainly found in their conjugated forms. α-ZOL was the most abundant and was found at a mean concentration of 2.23 and 1.56 ng/g in turkeys and chickens, respectively. Consuming the ZENDONFB diet significantly increased the level of total metabolites in the livers of chickens. Furthermore, this increase was more pronounced for the free forms of α-ZOL than for the conjugated forms. An investigation of the presence of ZEN and metabolites in muscle with the methods validated for the liver failed to reveal any traces of these contaminants in this tissue. These results suggest that concomitant dietary exposure to deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB) may alter the metabolism and persistence of ZEN and its metabolites in the liver.
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Simultaneous Determination of Deoxynivalenol, Its Modified Forms, Nivalenol and Fusarenone-X in Feedstuffs by the Liquid Hromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060362. [PMID: 32492900 PMCID: PMC7354445 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was developed for simultaneous determination of deoxynivalenol (DON), 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3Ac-DON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15Ac-DON), DON-3-glucoside (DON-3Glc) nivalenol and fusarenone-X in feedstuffs. Different techniques of sample preparation were tested: solid-liquid-extraction, QuEChERS, solid phase extraction with OASIS HLB columns or immunoaffinity columns and a Mycosep 225 Trich column. None of the six immunoaffinity columns tested showed cross-reactivity to all of the mycotoxins. Surprisingly, the results show that if the immunoaffinity columns bound 3Ac-DON, then they did not bind 15Ac-DON. The most efficient sample preparation was achieved with a Mycosep 225 Trich column clean-up. The chromatography was optimised to obtain full separation of all analytes (including 3Ac-DON and 15Ac-DON isomeric form). The validation results show the relative standard deviations for repeatability and reproducibility varied from 4% to 24%. The apparent recovery ranged between 92% and 97%, and the limit of quantification described a 1.30 to 50 µg/kg range. The method trueness was satisfactory, as assessed by a proficiency test and analysis of reference material. A total of 99 feed samples were analysed by the developed method, revealing the presence of DON and DON-3Glc in 85% and 86% of examined animal feeds, respectively at concentrations between 1.70 and 1709 µg/kg. The ratios DON-3Glc to DON in the surveyed feedstuffs were from a low of 3% to high of 59%.
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Lorenz N, Dänicke S, Edler L, Gottschalk C, Lassek E, Marko D, Rychlik M, Mally A. A critical evaluation of health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins with a special focus on zearalenone. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:27-46. [PMID: 30209771 PMCID: PMC6331505 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-018-0328-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive definition introducing the term "modified mycotoxins" to encompass all possible forms in which mycotoxins and their modifications can occur was recently proposed and has rapidly gained wide acceptance within the scientific community. It is becoming increasingly evident that exposure to such modified mycotoxins due to their presence in food and feed has the potential to pose a substantial additional risk to human and animal health. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a well-characterized Fusarium toxin. Considering the diversity of modified forms of ZEN occurring in food and feed, the toxicologically relevant endocrine activity of many of these metabolites, and the fact that modified forms add to a dietary exposure which approaches the tolerable daily intake by free ZEN alone, modified forms of ZEN present an ideal case study for critical evaluation of modified mycotoxins in food safety. Following a summary of recent scientific opinions of EFSA dealing with health risk assessment of ZEN alone or in combination with its modified forms, uncertainties and data gaps are highlighted. Issues essential for evaluation and prioritization of modified mycotoxins in health risk assessment are identified and discussed, including opportunities to improve exposure assessment using biomonitoring data. Further issues such as future consideration of combinatory effects of the parent toxin with its modified forms and also other compounds co-occurring in food and feed are addressed. With a particular focus on ZEN, the most pressing challenges associated with health risk assessment of modified mycotoxins are identified and recommendations for further research to fill data gaps and reduce uncertainties are made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Lorenz
- German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Str. 8-10, 10589, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 50, 38116, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lutz Edler
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christoph Gottschalk
- Chair of Food Safety, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Schönleutnerstr. 8, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - Eva Lassek
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Luitpoldstr. 1, 97082, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 38, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technical University Munich, Alte Akademie 10, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Angela Mally
- Department of Toxicology, University of Würzburg, Versbacher Strasse 9, 97078, Würzburg, Germany
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Yan Z, Wang L, Wang J, Tan Y, Yu D, Chang X, Fan Y, Zhao D, Wang C, De Boevre M, De Saeger S, Sun C, Wu A. A QuEChERS-Based Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for the Simultaneous Determination of Nine Zearalenone-Like Mycotoxins in Pigs. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E129. [PMID: 29558416 PMCID: PMC5869417 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The determination of zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivatives as biomarkers in animal tissues or organs plays an important role in mycotoxin monitoring and can promote effective exposure assessment. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous quantification of nine ZEN-like mycotoxins, including three glucuronides in different pig tissues (heart, liver, spleen and muscle) was developed and validated in this study. Tissue samples were extracted using a quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS) extraction and clean-up procedure, and analyzed by LC-MS/MS in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. Dynamic linear ranges for each target analyte were determined with R² between 0.916 and 0.999. The LODs of the six ZENs were achieved in the range of 0.5-1 ng/g and the LOQs varied from 1 ng/g to 2 ng/g. The satisfying intra-day and inter-day reproducibility (both RSDr and RSDR < 20%) indicated a good stability of this method. The recoveries of the nine target analytes were in the range of 70-110%. The validation results showed that this LC-MS/MS method coupled with QuEChERS sample pretreatment is effective and suitable for the simultaneous quantitation of ZEN metabolites in pigs. It has been applied to analysis of the pig tissues in this research and can be also adapted for samples in the mycotoxin research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Yan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Lan Wang
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Jun Wang
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Yanglan Tan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Dianzhen Yu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
| | - Xiaojiao Chang
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Yingying Fan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Duoyong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Cheng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Quality and Safety of Xinjiang/Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture/Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Changpo Sun
- Academy of State Administration of Grain P.R.C, No. 11 Baiwanzhuang Avenue, Xicheng District, Beijing 100037, China.
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200000, China.
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Knutsen HK, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Petersen A, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Dall'Asta C, Gutleb AC, Metzler M, Parent-Massin D, Binaglia M, Steinkellner H, Alexander J. Appropriateness to set a group health based guidance value for nivalenol and its modified forms. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04751. [PMID: 32625457 PMCID: PMC7009959 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) reviewed new studies on nivalenol since the previous opinion on nivalenol published in 2013, but as no new relevant data were identified the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for nivalenol (NIV) of 1.2 μg/kg body weight (bw) established on bases of immuno- and haematotoxicity in rats was retained. An acute reference dose (ARfD) of 14 μg/kg bw was established based on acute emetic events in mink. The only phase I metabolite of NIV identified is de-epoxy-nivalenol (DE-NIV) and the only phase II metabolite is nivalenol-3-glucoside (NIV3Glc). DE-NIV is devoid of toxic activity and was thus not further considered. NIV3Glc can occur in cereals amounting up to about 50% of NIV. There are no toxicity data on NIV3Glc, but as it can be assumed that it is hydrolysed to NIV in the intestinal tract it should be included in a group TDI and in a group ARfD with NIV. The uncertainty associated with the present assessment is considered as high and it would rather overestimate than underestimate any risk.
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Ajandouz EH, Berdah S, Moutardier V, Bege T, Birnbaum DJ, Perrier J, Di Pasquale E, Maresca M. Hydrolytic Fate of 3/15-Acetyldeoxynivalenol in Humans: Specific Deacetylation by the Small Intestine and Liver Revealed Using in Vitro and ex Vivo Approaches. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8080232. [PMID: 27483321 PMCID: PMC4999848 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8080232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to deoxynivalenol (DON), acetylated derivatives, i.e., 3-acetyl and 15-acetyldexynivalenol (or 3/15ADON), are present in cereals leading to exposure to these mycotoxins. Animal and human studies suggest that 3/15ADON are converted into DON after their ingestion through hydrolysis of the acetyl moiety, the site(s) of such deacetylation being still uncharacterized. We used in vitro and ex vivo approaches to study the deacetylation of 3/15ADON by enzymes and cells/tissues present on their way from the food matrix to the blood in humans. We found that luminal deacetylation by digestive enzymes and bacteria is limited. Using human cells, tissues and S9 fractions, we were able to demonstrate that small intestine and liver possess strong deacetylation capacity compared to colon and kidneys. Interestingly, in most cases, deacetylation was more efficient for 3ADON than 15ADON. Although we initially thought that carboxylesterases (CES) could be responsible for the deacetylation of 3/15ADON, the use of pure human CES1/2 and of CES inhibitor demonstrated that CES are not involved. Taken together, our original model system allowed us to identify the small intestine and the liver as the main site of deacetylation of ingested 3/15ADON in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Stéphane Berdah
- Aix Marseille Univ, Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée, UMRT24 IFSTTAR, Faculté de médecine secteur Nord, Boulevard Pierre Dramard, F-13916 Marseille Cedex 20, France.
| | - Vincent Moutardier
- Aix Marseille Univ, Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée, UMRT24 IFSTTAR, Faculté de médecine secteur Nord, Boulevard Pierre Dramard, F-13916 Marseille Cedex 20, France.
| | - Thierry Bege
- Aix Marseille Univ, Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée, UMRT24 IFSTTAR, Faculté de médecine secteur Nord, Boulevard Pierre Dramard, F-13916 Marseille Cedex 20, France.
| | - David Jérémie Birnbaum
- Aix Marseille Univ, Laboratoire de Biomécanique Appliquée, UMRT24 IFSTTAR, Faculté de médecine secteur Nord, Boulevard Pierre Dramard, F-13916 Marseille Cedex 20, France.
| | - Josette Perrier
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, Marseille, France.
| | - Eric Di Pasquale
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, CRN2M, Marseille, France & CSO@MyEnterix, Marseille, France.
| | - Marc Maresca
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, Marseille, France.
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Gonçalves C, Stroka J. Cross-reactivity features of deoxynivalenol (DON)-targeted immunoaffinity columns aiming to achieve simultaneous analysis of DON and major conjugates in cereal samples. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1053-62. [PMID: 27243664 PMCID: PMC4917924 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1188436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2015] [Accepted: 05/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Immunoaffinity columns (IACs) are a well-established tool in the determination of regulated mycotoxins in food and feed commodities. However, they also have the potential to become attractive pre-concentration and clean-up materials for the determination of masked (also called modified) mycotoxins, which have been recognised as important contributors to the toxicological hazard deriving from fungal spoilage of goods. However, the information available in the literature concerning the cross-reactivity of DON-IACs against the major conjugates (DON-3-G, 15-AcDON and 3-AcDON) is incomplete and often contradictory. We have carried out a detailed characterisation of the cross-reactivity of the four main IACs brands against DON and its conjugates as well as an assessment of the competition among the analytes. Only one IAC enabled the simultaneous analysis of all relevant DON forms while two missed 15-AcDON and the fourth one missed DON-3-G and 3-AcDON. In the case of the multivalent IAC, the analytes modified at the C-3 position compete for the antibody binding with preference for 3-AcDON (less spatially hindered) while DON-3-G has the more-hindered access to the active sites. Taking into consideration the levels of DON conjugates existing in real samples, the cross-reactivity of one DON-IAC allows a quantitative analysis of all of these analytes. Important but rather neglected aspects such as the continuous supply of IACs with identical characteristics, and of columns which are strictly blank, are also addressed in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Gonçalves
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Geel, Belgium
| | - Joerg Stroka
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements, Geel, Belgium
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Mikula H, Weber J, Svatunek D, Skrinjar P, Adam G, Krska R, Hametner C, Fröhlich J. Synthesis of zearalenone-16-β,D-glucoside and zearalenone-16-sulfate: A tale of protecting resorcylic acid lactones for regiocontrolled conjugation. Beilstein J Org Chem 2014; 10:1129-34. [PMID: 24991263 PMCID: PMC4077526 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.10.112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of a reliable procedure for the synthesis of the 16-glucoside and 16-sulfate of the resorcylic acid lactone (RAL) type compound zearalenone is presented. Different protective group strategies were considered and applied to enable the preparation of glucosides and sulfates that are difficult to access up to now. Acetyl and p-methoxybenzyl protection led to undesired results and were shown to be inappropriate. Finally, triisopropylsilyl-protected zearalenone was successfully used as intermediate for the first synthesis of the corresponding mycotoxin glucoside and sulfate that are highly valuable as reference materials for further studies in the emerging field of masked mycotoxins. Furthermore, high stability was observed for aryl sulfates prepared as tetrabutylammonium salts. Overall, these findings should be applicable for the synthesis of similar RAL type and natural product conjugates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Mikula
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Weber
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Dennis Svatunek
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Skrinjar
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 24, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Christian Hametner
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Fröhlich
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Vienna University of Technology (VUT), Getreidemarkt 9/163, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
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Development and evaluation of monoclonal antibodies for the glucoside of T-2 toxin (t2-glc). Toxins (Basel) 2013; 5:1299-313. [PMID: 23877196 PMCID: PMC3737498 DOI: 10.3390/toxins5071299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between fungi and plants can yield metabolites that are toxic in animal systems. Certain fungi are known to produce sesquiterpenoid trichothecenes, such as T-2 toxin, that are biotransformed by several mechanisms including glucosylation. The glucosylated forms have been found in grain and are of interest as potential reservoirs of T-2 toxin that are not detected by many analytical methods. Hence the glucosides of trichothecenes are often termed “masked” mycotoxins. The glucoside of T-2 toxin (T2-Glc) was linked to keyhole limpet hemocyanin and used to produce antibodies in mice. Ten monoclonal antibody (Mab)-producing hybridoma cell lines were developed. The Mabs were used in immunoassays to detect T2-Glc and T-2 toxin, with midpoints of inhibition curves (IC50s) in the low ng/mL range. Most of the Mabs demonstrated good cross-reactivity to T-2 toxin, with lower recognition of HT-2 toxin. One of the clones (2-13) was further characterized with in-depth cross-reactivity and solvent tolerance studies. Results suggest Mab 2-13 will be useful for the simultaneous detection of T-2 toxin and T2-Glc.
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Warth B, Sulyok M, Krska R. LC-MS/MS-based multibiomarker approaches for the assessment of human exposure to mycotoxins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:5687-95. [PMID: 23774829 PMCID: PMC3695324 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that frequently contaminate food and feed worldwide, and hence represent a major hazard for food and feed safety. To estimate human exposure arising from contaminated food, so-called biomarker approaches have been developed as a complementary biomonitoring tool besides traditional food analysis. The first methods based on radioimmunoassays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays as well as on liquid chromatography were developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s for the carcinogenic aflatoxins and in the last two decades further tailor-made methods for some major mycotoxins have been published. Since 2010, there has been a clear trend towards the development and application of multianalyte methods based on liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry for assessment of mycotoxin exposure made possible by the increased sensitivity and selectivity of modern mass spectrometry instrumentation and sophisticated sample cleanup approaches. With use of these advanced methods, traces of mycotoxins and relevant breakdown and conjugation products can be quantified simultaneously in human urine as so-called biomarkers and can be used to precisely describe the real exposure, toxicokinetics, and bioavailability of the toxins present. In this article, a short overview and comparison of published multibiomarker methods focusing on the determination of mycotoxins and relevant excretion products in human urine is presented. Special attention is paid to the main challenges when analyzing these toxic food contaminants in urine, i.e., very low analyte concentrations, appropriate sample preparation, matrix effects, and a lack of authentic, NMR-confirmed calibrants and reference materials. Finally, the progress in human exposure assessment studies facilitated by these analytical methods is described and an outlook on probable developments and possibilities is presented. Mycotoxin exposure assessment: traditional food analysis compared to the innovative, complementary biomarker approach ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Center for Analytical Chemistry, Department for Agrobiotechnology (IFA-Tulln), University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
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Berthiller F, Crews C, Dall'Asta C, Saeger SD, Haesaert G, Karlovsky P, Oswald IP, Seefelder W, Speijers G, Stroka J. Masked mycotoxins: a review. Mol Nutr Food Res 2013; 57:165-86. [PMID: 23047235 PMCID: PMC3561696 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 518] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Revised: 06/13/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this review is to give a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on plant metabolites of mycotoxins, also called masked mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, toxic to human and animals. Toxigenic fungi often grow on edible plants, thus contaminating food and feed. Plants, as living organisms, can alter the chemical structure of mycotoxins as part of their defence against xenobiotics. The extractable conjugated or non-extractable bound mycotoxins formed remain present in the plant tissue but are currently neither routinely screened for in food nor regulated by legislation, thus they may be considered masked. Fusarium mycotoxins (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, nivalenol, fusarenon-X, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, fusaric acid) are prone to metabolisation or binding by plants, but transformation of other mycotoxins by plants (ochratoxin A, patulin, destruxins) has also been described. Toxicological data are scarce, but several studies highlight the potential threat to consumer safety from these substances. In particular, the possible hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins back to their toxic parents during mammalian digestion raises concerns. Dedicated chapters of this article address plant metabolism as well as the occurrence of masked mycotoxins in food, analytical aspects for their determination, toxicology and their impact on stakeholders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Berthiller
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, Department for Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Tulln, Austria
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Cunha SC, Fernandes JO. Development and validation of a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for determination of deoxynivalenol and its metabolites in human urine. Food Chem Toxicol 2011; 50:1019-26. [PMID: 22227217 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.12.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2011] [Revised: 11/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The determination of deoxynivalenol (DON) and its metabolites such as deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) in human urine is complicated due its low levels (ng/mL) and the complexity of the matrix. A gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method was optimized and validated for the confirmation analysis of DON and its metabolites in urine samples using 13C isotopic-labeled DON as internal standard. In the sample preparation the type and amount of β-glucuronidase for enzymatic hydrolysis was investigated as well as the cleanup procedure, being compared the immunoaffinity column with solid-phase extraction (SPE). As far as we know, SPE C18 cleanup procedure was applied for the first time in the analysis of DON and its metabolites in human urine. Using this analytical methodology the detection and quantification limits achieved ranged from 0.06 to 0.30 ng/mL and from 0.2 to 1.0 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries were higher than 73% for fortification levels between 25 and 100 ng/mL and repeatability were lower than 13%. The natural occurrence of DON and its metabolites in human urine samples from the north zone of Portugal was studied. Free DON was detected in 15% of the samples whereas total (free+conjugated) DON was detected in 69% of the samples. Deepoxy-deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol and 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol were not detected in any of the samples analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Cunha
- REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Bromatology and Hydrology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Aníbal Cunha 164, 4099-030 Porto, Portugal.
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