Occurrence of mycotoxins in rice consumed by Iranians: a probabilistic assessment of risk to health

Dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin G1, ochratoxin A, and patulin through fruit juice consumption: A probabilistic assessment of health risk

The present investigation assessed the risk of dietary exposure to four mycotoxins, namely aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and patulin (PAT) via fruit juice consumption for Iranian consumers. In 96 fruit juice samples obtained from Iran market, mycotoxins levels were determined using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Also, probabilistic health risk assessment was conducted in terms of tolerable daily intake percentage (%TDI) and under cancer risk scenarios. The average concentrations of mycotoxins in the fruit juice samples did not vary significantly among the analyzed samples. The highest mean total level of AFB1 and AFG1was observed in sour cherry, and that of OTA and PAT in pomegranate and apple juice samples. The sour cherry juice demonstrated the highest %TDIs for AFB1 and AFG1 at 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, while pomegranate juice and apple juice were associated with the highest %TDIs for OTA and PAT, respectively. Across all fruit juice samples, %TDIs for PAT remained below 1.0 at the three centiles. However, %TDIs for AFB1, AFG1, and OTA exceeded 1.0 at these centiles. Based on Monte Carlo Simulation model used for cancer risk scenario, at these centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to AFB1 and AFG1.

Risk assessment of Ochratoxin A (OTA) exposure from coffee consumption in Indonesia using Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin widely found in foodstuffs that is suspected to pose adverse health effects on humans. As one of the biggest coffee-producing countries, Indonesia face challenges in managing the OTA contamination at reasonable levels in coffee. A favorable climate for fungi growth and inappropriate food safety practices are several issues faced in Indonesia for managing the OTA contamination in coffee products. Nevertheless, studies about risk analysis exposure of OTA from coffee consumption in Indonesia is limited. Hence, the present study aimed to evaluate the risk of exposure to OTA from coffee consumption using the Margin of Exposure Approach (MOE) based on coffee provincial consumption data. Risk assessment using the MOE approach revealed that the OTA exposure from coffee consumption in Indonesia is generally of concern. The MOE values derived in the present study were generally below 1000. Several Indonesian provinces even have MOE values below 200, indicating a greater concern of exposure. Overall, the present study highlights the importance of food safety management in Indonesian coffee production to minimize the OTA exposure from coffee consumption.

Analysis of 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP occurrence in mayonnaise: A probabilistic risk assessment of dietary exposure for Iranians

Mayonnaise is a commonly used oil-in-water emulsion food product. Due to their toxicological properties/genotoxicity and carcinogenicity, chloropropanols' oral exposure has raised concerns over the past decade. The present study reports the occurrence level of free forms of 3-chloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) and 1,3-dichloro-2-propanol (1,3-DCP) in mayonnaise samples and the risk of oral exposure to these chemicals through consumption of the analyzed samples. Mayonnaise (low- and high-fat, from 6 brands, totally 120 samples) were analyzed for 1,3-DCP and 3-MCPD by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The mean level of chemicals was higher in the high-fat samples, with no significant difference among the brands. Generally, 1,3-DCP level was significantly lower in both high-fat and low-fat samples compared to 3-MCPD. Hazard Index (HI) values calculated for oral exposure to 3-MCPD for Iranian adults using probabilistic methods, were less than 1.0, reflecting no major risk. In the Margin of Exposure scenario, low- and high-fat mayonnaise samples were of de minimis health concern at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles. Nevertheless, in order to safeguard consumer interests, it is imperative to implement online real-time methodologies for monitoring reactions that result in generation of thermal process contaminants such as 3-MCPD and 1,3-DCP, and to innovate novel technologies to minimize the occurrence of such chemicals while preserving both safety and sensory attributes.

Assessment of dietary exposure and levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State of Nigeria

This study reports levels of mycotoxins in sorghum from Niger State, Nigeria, and provides a comprehensive assessment of their potential health risks by combining mycotoxin levels and dietary exposure assessment. A total of 240 samples of red and white sorghum were collected from both stores and markets across four microclimatic zones. Fungal species were identified using a dilution plate method. Aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, and ochratoxin (OTA) were quantified using HPLC, whereas cyclopiazonic acid, fumonisins (FUMs) and zearalenone were quantified using ELISA. A. flavus and A. fumigatus were dominant fungal species followed by F. verticilloides, A. oryzae and P. verrucosum. Aflatoxins (mean: 29.97 µg/kg) were detected in all samples, whereas OTA (mean: 37.5 µg/kg) and FUMs (mean: 3269.8 µg/kg) were detected in 72% and 50% of the samples, respectively. Mycotoxins frequently co-occurred in binary mixtures of AFs + OTA and AFs + FUMs. Dietary exposure estimates were highest for FUMs at 230% of TDI and margin of exposures (MOEs) for both AFs and OTA (<10,000) indicating a potential risk associated with combined exposure to AFs and OTA. The Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma cases (HCC/year) attributable to AFs and OTA exposure from sorghum was estimated to be 5.99 × 105 and 0.24 × 105 cases for HBsAg + individuals based on 13.6% HBV incidence. Similarly, the HCC/year for AFs and OTA were assessed to be 3.59 × 105 and 0.14 × 105 at an 8.1% prevalence rate. Therefore, the results of this study demonstrate the high prevalence and dietary exposure to mycotoxins through sorghum consumption, raising public health and trade concerns.

Risk Assessment Considering the Bioavailability of 3-β-d-Glucosides of Deoxynivalenol and Nivalenol through Food Intake in Korea

Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol are major type B trichothecenes and the most frequently occurring mycotoxins worldwide. Their 3-β-d-glucoside forms have recently become a safety management issue. These glucoside conjugates are converted back to the parent toxins during human digestion, but studies to confirm their bioavailability are lacking. In this study, a risk assessment was performed considering the bioavailability of glucoside conjugates. A literature review was conducted to compile the existing bioavailability studies of glucoside conjugates, and three exposure scenarios considering bioavailability were established. As a result of a risk assessment using deterministic and probabilistic methods, both the deoxynivalenol and nivalenol groups had safe levels of tolerable daily intake percentage (TDI%), not exceeding 100%. The TDI% for the nivalenol group was approximately 2-3 times higher than that for the deoxynivalenol group. Notably, infants showed higher TDI% than adults for both toxin groups. By food processing type, the overall TDI% was highest for raw material, followed by simple-processed and then fermented-processed. Since glucoside conjugates can be converted into parent toxins during the digestion process, a risk assessment considering bioavailability allows the more accurate evaluation of the risk level of glucoside conjugates and can direct their safety management in the future.

Probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to multiple mycotoxins in consumers of packaged and unpackaged spices in Iran

The current study assessed the risk posed to Iranian consumers by oral exposure to a mixture of ten mycotoxins in 138 packaged and unpackaged spices collected from the Iran market. Concentrations of mycotoxins in samples were quantified by liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry with triple quadrupole, and ion trap. Probabilistic health risks of oral exposure to these mycotoxins for Iranians were assessed under percent tolerable daily intake (TDI) and cancer risk scenarios. Mean concentrations of mycotoxins in both packaged and unpackaged spice samples showed statistically significant variation among different spice samples. Based on a Monte Carlo simulation model, at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, oral consumption of the analyzed samples poses no carcinogenic risk for exposure to aflatoxin. Moreover, in both packaged and unpackaged samples, while the percent TDIs for ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, patulin, fumonisin B1, and fumonisin B2 were below 1.0 at the 50th, 80th, and 95th centiles, the value was above 1.0 for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin B2, aflatoxin G1, and aflatoxin G2 at each of these centiles.

Assessment of Carcinogenic and Non-carcinogenic Risk of Exposure to Metals via Consumption of Coffee, Tea, and Herbal Tea in Iranians

In the current study, we assessed health risk posed to Iranian consumers through exposure to metals via oral consumption of coffee, tea, and herbal tea of various trademarks collected from Iran market. Level of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Ni, and Pb in 243 samples was quantified by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). The metal levels in coffee samples from different trademarks of a specific country had statistically similar levels of metals; however, metal levels differed significantly among brand names form different countries. Metal levels in tea samples differed significantly between domestic and imported products, while different trademarks of similar countries did not show significant variations in this respect. Metal level in herbal tea samples did not show significant variations among different trademarks. Nevertheless, it should be highlighted that mean concentrations of metals statistically differed among different herbal tea samples. Deterministic hazard quotients (HQs) were <1.0 for all non-carcinogenic metals and total hazard index (HI) values indicated no risk; however, probabilistic assessment calculated HI values >1. In both deterministic and probabilistic scenarios, carcinogenic metals As and Ni had an estimated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) of medium level while that of Pb indicated no cancer risk. Sensitivity analysis showed that the concentration of metals had the most significant effect on non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks.

Determination of Mycotoxin Contamination Levels in Rice and Dietary Exposure Assessment

The contamination by aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, and zearalenone of samples of paddy and polished rice stored in silos located in Chiriquí, Panama, was evaluated. A total of 23 samples were extracted using immunoaffinity columns and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a fluorescence detector (FLD) and post-column photochemical derivatization. For the method used, the detection limits were lower than 0.25 μg/Kg for aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, AFG2) and ochratoxin A and 9.35 μg/Kg for zearalenone; the limits of quantification were between 0.25 and 18.75 μg/Kg, respectively. Of the samples analyzed, all of the paddy rice samples were positive for at least one of the mycotoxins studied, zearalenone being the one found with the highest incidence (90.91%); for the polished rice samples, the mycotoxin with the highest incidence was zearalenone (50%), although in concentrations lower than those established in European legislation (100 μg/Kg). The estimate of the daily zearalenone intake according to the concentrations found was always less than 0.07 μg/Kg/bw. This is the first report on the determination of 6 mycotoxins in rice grains from Panama by the HPLC-FLD methodology. Considering the high incidence of mycotoxins in the analyzed rice samples, regular control in the production process is recommended to improve quality and ascertain its safety.

Co-occurrence of mycotoxins: A review on bioanalytical methods for simultaneous analysis in human biological samples, mixture toxicity and risk assessment strategies

Mycotoxins are the toxic chemical substances that are produced by various fungal species and some of these are harmful to humans. Mycotoxins are ubiquitous in nature and humans could be exposed to multiple mycotoxins simultaneously. Unfortunately, exposure to mixed mycotoxins is not very well studied. Various studies have demonstrated the capacity of mycotoxins to show synergistic effect in the presence of other mycotoxins, thus, increasing the risk of toxicity. Hence, it is important to monitor mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples which would serve as a crucial information for risk assessment. Through this review paper, we aim to summarize the mixture toxicity of mycotoxins and the various bio-analytical techniques that are being used for the simultaneous analysis of mixed mycotoxins in human biological samples. Different sample preparation and clean-up techniques employed till date for eliminating the interferences from human biological samples without affecting the analyses of the mycotoxins are also discussed. Further, a brief introduction of risk assessment strategies that have been or could be adopted for multiple mycotoxin risk assessments is also mentioned. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review that focuses solely on the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in human biological samples as well as their risk assessment strategies.

The Occurrence and Contamination Level of Ochratoxin A in Plant and Animal-Derived Food Commodities

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a highly toxic mycotoxin and poses great threat to human health. Due to its serious toxicity and widespread contamination, great efforts have been made to evaluate its human exposure. This review focuses on the OTA occurrence and contamination level in nine plant and animal derived food commodities: cereal, wine, coffee, beer, cocoa, dried fruit, spice, meat, and milk. The occurrence and contamination level varied greatly in food commodities and were affected by many factors, including spices, geography, climate, and storage conditions. Therefore, risk monitoring must be routinely implemented to ensure minimal OTA intake and food safety.

Exposure to multiple mycotoxins in domestic and imported rice commercially traded in Tehran and possible risk to public health

Mycotoxins are secondary fungi metabolites that induce acute and chronic toxic effects in humans and animals. In the present study, nine mycotoxins including aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2), fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), Ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN) were determined in one hundred rice samples collected from Tehran using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence or photodiode array detector. In addition, possible risk to public health was investigated by assessing dietary exposure through rice consumption, the margin of exposure (MOE), respective risk of cancer and hazard index (HI) of the monitored mycotoxins in children and adults. The higher mean levels were determined for DON (102.22 μg.Kg-1), followed by FB1 (85.00 μg.Kg-1). For the rests of mycotoxins the levels did not exceed 20 μg.Kg-1. The estimated AFB1 intake for the adults and children through rice consumption exceeds the safe levels established for both carriers and non-carriers of hepatitis B virus. The mean and median determined exposure levels of OTA, DON ZEN and FB1, were found lower than the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) value for both adults and children of Tehran that consuming domestic and imported rice. The mean HI for adults and median HI for adults and children were below one, and mean HI for children was close to one. All the mean, median and maximum MoE values were <10,000 in adults and children, indicating a risk due to AFB1 exposure through rice consumption in Tehran. In addition, the calculated mean cancer risk in adult and child populations of Tehran were 0.27 and 0.64 cases per year per 105 individuals, respectively, that shows population in Tehran could be at risk of cancer due to AFB1 exposure through rice consumption as calculated. So further studies are necessary for the monitoring mycotoxins in rice and different food products as well as estimating average dietary exposure and cumulative exposure assessment of mycotoxins for main foods in IR Iran.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, and metals in olive: analysis and probabilistic risk assessment

In the present study, levels of 22 pesticides, eight metals, and 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in 1800 Iranian olive samples (20 cultivars from six different cultivation zones), were determined; then, health risk posed by oral consumption of the olive samples to Iranian consumers was assessed. Quantification of PAHs and pesticides was done by chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and metal levels were determined using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). There were no significant differences among the cultivars and zones in terms of the levels of the tested compounds. Target hazard quotients (THQ) were <1.0 for all pesticides, and total hazard indices (HI) indicated di minimis risk. At the 25th or 95th centiles, Incremental Life Time Cancer Risks (ILCRs) for carcinogenic elements, arsenic, and lead and noncarcinogenic metals did not exhibit a significant hazard (HI <1.0 for both cases). At the 25th or 95th centiles, ILCR and margins of exposure (MoE) for PAHs indicated di minimis risk. Sensitivity analysis showed that concentrations of contaminants had the most significant effect on carcinogenic and noncarcinogenic risks.

Probabilistic carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metal ingestion through consumption of different walnut cultivars: An Iranian study

The heavy metal levels in six walnut cultivars from five geographical zones of Iran were measured. An assessment of risks was conducted by calculating the Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) and Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) by use of the Monte Carlo simulation method. The highest amounts of As and Pb were reported in Farouj samples. Also, the highest levels of Cr, Zn, Cu and Mn were determined in samples collected from Tuyserkan. Accordingly, 50th and 95th ILCRs for general population due to consumption of walnut were 1.03 × 10^-4 and 3.11 × 10^-4 (for As), 4.10 × 10^-6 and 1.1 × 10^-5 (for Cr) and 4.71 × 10^-9 and 1.05 × 10^-8 (for Pb), respectively. In addition, the 50th and 95th centiles of the HIs for walnut ingestion by Iranians were 1.02 and 2.05, respectively, indicating a minor chance of non-cancer effects. Based on the calculated 95% ILCR, dietary exposure to As through the consumption of walnut poses a risk to Iranian consumer health. However, ILCR values of other heavy metals (HMs) were in acceptable ranges (ILCR < 1 × 10^-4), representing no toxicological concern for consumers. The most significantly influential parameters were determined by sensitivity analysis during the MCS. According to THQ and ILCR methods, concentration was the most sensitive parameters. For THQ method the concentration effects were ranged from 72.4 to 85.1%. Moreover, for ILCR method the effects of concentration in As, Cr, and Pb were 87.1, 79.1 and 83.54%, respectively.

Mycotoxins in cereals and cereal-based products: Incidence and probabilistic dietary risk assessment for the Brazilian population

A probabilistic dietary risk assessment on mycotoxins was conducted using the Monte Carlo Risk Assessment software, with consumption data from the 2008/2009 Brazilian Household Budget Survey for individuals who were at least 10 years old and occurrence data for 646 samples of rice, maize, wheat, and their products, collected in the Federal District and in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Processing factors were estimated and applied to concentration data. Chronic exposure was estimated for fumonisins (free and bound/hidden), deoxynivalenol (DON) (including the acetylated forms) and zearalenone (ZON) (including alfa-zearalenol) and acute exposure was estimated for DON. For the general population, the chronic exposure exceeded the safe exposure levels at the 95P for DON and at the 99P for fumonisins. Additionally, safe level exceedance occurred at the 97.5P for fumonisins and at the 95P for DON for teenagers, as well as at the 99P for fumonisins for women of child-bearing-age. No exceedances were found for chronic exposure to ZON and acute exposure to DON. Maize couscous contributed most of the total fumonisins (91%) and ZON intakes (~40%) and bread to total intake of DON (~30%). Further studies should be conducted with updated Brazilian consumption data, which should include information for individuals aged less than 10 years old.

Characteristics, Occurrence, Detection and Detoxification of Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds

Mycotoxin contamination continues to be a food safety concern globally, with the most toxic being aflatoxins. On-farm aflatoxins, during food transit or storage, directly or indirectly result in the contamination of foods, which affects the liver, immune system and reproduction after infiltration into human beings and animals. There are numerous reports on aflatoxins focusing on achieving appropriate methods for quantification, precise detection and control in order to ensure consumer safety. In 2012, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2 as group 1 carcinogenic substances, which are a global human health concern. Consequently, this review article addresses aflatoxin chemical properties and biosynthetic processes; aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds; health effects in human beings and animals due to aflatoxin exposure, as well as aflatoxin detection and detoxification methods.