Relations between Everyday Executive Functioning and Language in Youth with Down Syndrome and Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Brain structural associations of syntactic complexity and diversity across schizophrenia spectrum and major depressive disorders, and healthy controls

Deviations in syntax production have been well documented in schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSD). Recently, we have shown evidence for transdiagnostic subtypes of syntactic complexity and diversity. However, there is a lack of studies exploring brain structural correlates of syntax across diagnoses. We assessed syntactic complexity and diversity of oral language production using four Thematic Apperception Test pictures in a sample of N = 87 subjects (n = 24 major depressive disorder (MDD), n = 30 SSD patients both diagnosed according to DSM-IV-TR, and n = 33 healthy controls (HC)). General linear models were used to investigate the association of syntax with gray matter volume (GMV), fractional anisotropy (FA), axial (AD), radial (RD), and mean diffusivity (MD). Age, sex, total intracranial volume, group, interaction of group and syntax were covariates of no interest. Syntactic diversity was positively correlated with the GMV of the right medial pre- and postcentral gyri and with the FA of the left superior-longitudinal fasciculus (temporal part). Conversely, the AD of the left cingulum bundle and the forceps minor were negatively correlated with syntactic diversity. The AD of the right inferior-longitudinal fasciculus was positively correlated with syntactic complexity. Negative associations were observed between syntactic complexity and the FA of the left cingulum bundle, the right superior-longitudinal fasciculus, and the AD of the forceps minor and the left uncinate fasciculus. Our study showed brain structural correlates of syntactic complexity and diversity across diagnoses and HC. This contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between linguistic and neural substrates in syntax production in psychiatric disorders and HC.

Role of child demographic, executive functions, and behavioral challenges on feelings about parenting among parents of youth with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Living with a child with Down syndrome (DS) influences the entire family, including caregivers.

AIMS

This study examined positive and negative caregiver feelings about parenting youth with DS and to what extent children's demographic, cognitive, behavioral characteristics, and co-occurring medical conditions are associated with those parental feelings. Specifically, the mediatory role of child behavioral challenges on the relationship between child executive functioning (EF) and parent feelings about parenting a child with DS was examined in a mediation analysis model.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Parents of 113 youth with DS aged 6 to 17 year rated their positive and negative feelings about parenting, and their child's behavioral challenges and EF.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Externalizing and Internalizing behavioral challenges and emotional and behavioral regulations of EF were significantly associated with positive and negative parent feelings. Child behavioral challenges fully mediated the relationship between child EF and caregiver feelings about parenting, after controlling for identified covariates of child demographics.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Findings have implications for understanding the role of EF, through its impact on behavioral challenges, on the feelings of caregivers about parenting a child with DS. These findings play a role in understanding outcomes of interventions targeted at EF and behavioral challenges, in the context of other child variables.

Here's the Story: Narrative Ability and Executive Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Background

Difficulties with narrative have been reported in individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but the role of executive function on narrative ability has not been examined in ASD. In this study, we aimed to (1) examine whether narrative abilities of ASD children differed from neurotypical (NT) children who did not differ in age, sex, and IQ; and (2) investigate relations between executive function and narrative ability in ASD children.

Method

Narratives were elicited from 64 ASD children and 26 NT children using a wordless picture book and coded to derive several aspects of narrative ability such as propositions, evaluative devices, and self-repairs. Executive functions (specifically, inhibition and working memory) were measured using both experimenter-administered assessment and parent-report measures.

Results

Compared to NT children, ASD children produced fewer propositions but did not differ in their use of evaluative devices and self-repairs during narrative production. Greater inhibitory challenges related to more self-repairs involving repetition of story elements, whereas working memory did not relate to any of the measures of narrative ability among ASD children.

Conclusions

This study revealed that narratives by verbally fluent ASD children were shorter and less complex than those by NT children but did not differ in the specific features of narratives. Furthermore, although ASD children did not make more self-repairs than NT children, difficulty with inhibition was related to more self-repairs, indicating more dysfluent narrative production in ASD children, which has implications for intervention.

Profiles and trajectories of executive functioning in young children with Down syndrome

BACKGROUND

Language acquisition strongly predicts executive functioning (EF) in early childhood in typical development and in children with Down syndrome (DS). Both language and EF are critical contributors to later positive social and academic outcomes yet are often areas of concern in children with DS. Despite the wider availability of interventions targeting language development in DS, no efforts have been made to understand how these interventions may influence the development of EF in this population.

METHODS

This study examined secondary data from 76 preschoolers with DS collected as part of a randomised waitlist control trial of an early social communication intervention (JASPER-EMT). Children's EF skills were measured using the BRIEF-P, at three timepoints over 6 months. Linear regression was used to examine the baseline relationship between child characteristics and the three indices of the BRIEF-P: Emergent Metacognition, Flexibility and Inhibitory Self-Control. Linear mixed effects models were used to estimate change across the three indices of the BRIEF-P and whether that change was moderated by treatment.

RESULTS

Children in this sample exhibited an uneven profile of EF at baseline, with relative strengths in the Flexibility Index and the Inhibitory Self-Control Index, and relative weaknesses in the Emerging Metacognition Index. Chronological age was associated with all indices at baseline (all P < 0.05). Children in the intervention group exhibited improvements in the Flexibility Index from entry to exit (3 months later) compared with the control, although this treatment effect did not maintain at the follow up at 6 months.

CONCLUSIONS

Baseline EF profiles of children were consistent with findings of other studies with children with DS. Longitudinal findings suggest that behavioural interventions targeting language may have positive collateral effects on certain EF skills, however these effects may be transitory without ongoing support. These findings illustrate both the need for further exploration of the impact of early language interventions on EF abilities and the malleability of certain EF domains in young children with DS.

The Directionality of the Relationship Between Executive Functions and Language Skills: A Literature Review

It has been demonstrated that executive functions play a significant role in different aspects of the development of children. Development of language is also one of the most important accomplishments of the preschool years, and it has been linked to many outcomes in life. Despite substantial research demonstrating the association between executive function and language development in childhood, only a handful of studies have examined the direction of the developmental pathways between EF skills and language skills, therefore little is known about how these two constructs are connected. In this review paper, we discuss three possible directional relationships between EFs and language development throughout childhood. First, we discuss how EF might affect language functioning. Next, we discuss how language functioning might affect EF. Lastly, we consider other possible relationships between EF and language. Given that children with better EF and language skills are more likely to succeed in educational settings and demonstrate greater social–emotional competencies, investigating the relationship between EF and language in the preschool period provides insight into mechanisms that have not been extensively studied. Furthermore, it could create new opportunities for designing effective and efficient interventions aimed at addressing EF and language deficits during the preschool period which could in turn influence later development.

Executive function as measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2: children and adolescents with Williams syndrome

BACKGROUND

Difficulties with executive functions (EF) are very common among individuals with Williams syndrome (WS). To characterise the pattern of relative strengths and weaknesses in EF for children and adolescents with WS, we considered the performance of a large sample on the parent version of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2 (BRIEF-2). Associations between distinct components of EF and adaptive behaviour, behaviour problems and intellectual ability were investigated. The concurrent effects of components of behaviour regulation and emotion regulation on attention problems and anxiety problems also were evaluated.

METHODS

Participants were 308 6-17-year-olds with genetically confirmed classic WS deletions. Parent report of EF was measured by the BRIEF-2 questionnaire. Most participants (223/308) completed the Differential Ability Scales-II as a measure of intellectual ability. The parents of these individuals also completed the Child Behavior Checklist and the interview form of the Scales of Independent Behavior-Revised.

RESULTS

As a group, the participants evidenced considerable parent-reported EF difficulty. A profile of relative strength and weakness was found at the index level, with performance on both the Behavior Regulation Index and the Emotion Regulation Index significantly better than performance on the Cognitive Regulation Index. Within each index, a statistically significant pattern of relative strength and weakness also was identified. Difficulties with behaviour regulation and emotion regulation were related to both behaviour problems and adaptive behaviour limitations. Higher inflexibility and more difficulty with self-monitoring were associated with lower overall intellectual ability. Difficulty with inhibition was uniquely associated with attention problems, and inflexibility was uniquely associated with anxiety problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Executive function difficulties are highly prevalent among children and adolescents with WS and are associated with adaptive behaviour limitations, both internalising and externalising behaviour problems and more limited intellectual ability. These results highlight the importance of designing and delivering research-based interventions to improve the EF of children and adolescents with WS.

Procedural Learning through Action Observation: Preliminary Evidence from Virtual Gardening Activity in Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disability (ID) compromises intellectual and adaptive functioning. People with an ID show difficulty with procedural skills, with loss of autonomy in daily life. From an embodiment perspective, observation of action promotes motor skill learning. Among promising technologies, virtual reality (VR) offers the possibility of engaging the sensorimotor system, thus, improving cognitive functions and adaptive capacities. Indeed, VR can be used as sensorimotor feedback, which enhances procedural learning. In the present study, fourteen subjects with an ID underwent progressive steps training combined with VR aimed at learning gardening procedures. All participants were trained twice a week for fourteen weeks (total 28 sessions). Participants were first recorded while sowing zucchini, then they were asked to observe a virtual video which showed the correct procedure. Next, they were presented with their previous recordings, and they were asked to pay attention and to comment on the errors made. At the end of the treatment, the results showed that all participants were able to correctly garden in a real environment. Interestingly, action observation facilitated, not only procedural skills, but also specific cognitive abilities. This evidence emphasizes, for the first time, that action observation combined with VR improves procedural learning in ID.

Opportunities, barriers, and recommendations in down syndrome research

BACKGROUND

Recent advances in medical care have increased life expectancy and improved the quality of life for people with Down syndrome (DS). These advances are the result of both pre-clinical and clinical research but much about DS is still poorly understood. In 2020, the NIH announced their plan to update their DS research plan and requested input from the scientific and advocacy community.

OBJECTIVE

The National Down Syndrome Society (NDSS) and the LuMind IDSC Foundation worked together with scientific and medical experts to develop recommendations for the NIH research plan.

METHODS

NDSS and LuMind IDSC assembled over 50 experts across multiple disciplines and organized them in eleven working groups focused on specific issues for people with DS.

RESULTS

This review article summarizes the research gaps and recommendations that have the potential to improve the health and quality of life for people with DS within the next decade.

CONCLUSIONS

This review highlights many of the scientific gaps that exist in DS research. Based on these gaps, a multidisciplinary group of DS experts has made recommendations to advance DS research. This paper may also aid policymakers and the DS community to build a comprehensive national DS research strategy.